The Ahom and the Koch kingdoms of Assam have made a great impact on the nature of the state of Assam today and hence, it’s culture. The Ahoms which ruled the kingdom from 1228-1826, is the pride of all Assamese people because it’s the only kingdom to have defeated the Mughals, 17 times in a battle. Their process of the cultural assimilation of various tribes like the Naga, Moran, Borahi, Chutiya ad Dimasa people made a drastic change in the socio-cultural life of Assam. The Ahoms eventually developed a new ‘Assamese Culture’, parts of which the natives still follow today, which was a mix of both tribal and non-tribal elements. 

Role of Sankardeva in Assamese Culture

Mahapurush Srimanta Sankardev who was born in 1449, till date, remains the colossal figure for the social and religious reform in Assam, while also being a saint, scholar and a playwright.

One of Sankardev’s most highlighted contribution to the Assamese culture is believed to be the Vaishnava movement of the 15^th century, which had both religious and cultural dimensions. He preached the religion of ‘Ek Sarania Nam Dharma’, i.e, absolute worship pf Lord Vishnu, through the movement of the 15^th century. The partial Hinduization of communities that he achieved along with the creation of new socio-religious institutions like the ‘Namghar’ and the ‘Sattra’, has rightfully granted to him the status of a religious pioneer. But to view Sankardev as only a religious reformer and likewise, his reforms being limited to the religious sphere is an extremely contracted perception of his greatness. The Vaishnava moment in its glory also contributed to newer developments in language and literature, performing and fine arts, and also attempted to incorporate foreign elements into the Assamese culture. Sankardev was also able to give religion an artistic form, often linking religion to music. He, and his disciple, Madhavdeva who was as influential, wrote a number of holy songs known as ‘Borgeet’ which remain an important part of Assamese culture now, even hundreds of years after their composition. Sankardev also composed dramas called, ‘Ankia Naat’ and Sattriya dance was a part of it. 

Therefore, Sankardev and later his disciple Madhavdev, have made an immense and irreplaceable contribution to Assamese culture, the remnants of which still remain till date. 

A culture represented in symbols…

A unique feature of Assamese culture is the significance attributed to symbols in it. This cultural practice of associating one’s pride and identity as an Assamese is age-old but still remains important within the domain of culture. 

Perhaps, the most important and popular symbol of Assamese culture is the ‘Gamosa’ which is a rectangular piece of cloth that has red borders and beautifully woven prints. While literally, the Gamosa means a cloth to wipe one’s body with, it’s significance surpasses that function. It often serves as a gift that is given to respectable people while honouring them, as ‘bihuwaans’, i.e, gifts given during Bihu, at Namghars, etc. So deeply is it entrenched in Assamese culture, that in contemporary times, even Covid-19 face masks, along with different types of clothes such as shirts, etc, are made of Gamosa. It is a scarf like cloth that PM Modi is often seen dorning, although it’s frequent reference to as ‘Modi Gamcha’ sparks controversies of cultural appropriation. 

Further, the ‘Xorai’ which is a traditional object of great respect and is made of bell-metal or brass or silver, also acquires great significance in terms of culture. The Xorai is used as a medium for respectful offerings in Namghars and also used as ornaments in many Assamese homes.

Another important symbol is the tamul-paan (areca nut and beatle leaves) which when offered is believed to be a sign of devotion, respect and friendship. 

FESTIVALS AND CELEBRATIONS IN ASSAM

A state as diverse as Assam, which is home to about 18 tribes (Boro, Dimasa, Chutia, Sonowal, Tiwa, Garo, Rabha, Mising, Karbi, and others) and non-tribal population, celebrates a wide number of festivals.

Bihu

Bihu, which is celebrated three times a year, is the most widely celebrated and popular festival in Assam. 

Bohag Bihu or Rongali Bihu, is celebrated by dancing the traditional Bihu dance and singing songs with loved ones, in mid-April.  In mid-October, Kongali Bihu is celebrated. Following this comes the Harvest bihu, known as Bhogali Bihu or Magh Bihu, which is usually celebrated by feasting and burning of community bonfires, known as ‘mezi’, in mid-January. 

Besides Bihu, Assam also celebrates various other major festivals such as Me-dum-me-phi, which is an ancestor worship festival observed by the whole Ahom community. The Bodos and the Kacharis on the other hand, celebrate the festival of Baishagu with grandeur. 

Assam also celebrates festivals of, Durga Puja, Dol-Jatra, Ambubashi mela, Saraswati Puja, Diwali and all other national and international festivals, perhaps due to the diversity of the population that lives in the region. 

 TRADITIONAL CRAFT INDUSTRIES

Weaving is both a part of women’s lifestyle as well as one of the most important traditional industries in Assam. Assam boasts of having the largest concentration of handlooms and weavers all over India. Mahatma Gandhi, in reference to the traditional weaving industry in Assam, had once praised the women behind the success of the industry, as being able to weave dreams with their looms. These Assamese women, weave silk (of three varieties – eri, muga and pat) and cotton in their looms. Of all the varieties of silk produced, Muga is the most glorious and prestigious one, which is a golden cloth, known worldwide, as being the finest of India’s wild silk. 

Besides the traditional silk and cotton weaves, tribal weaves are also prominent, and as prestigious in Assam. This includes ‘mirjim’ (from Majuli and N.E Assam) on blankets, mattresses and floor coverings and shawls of Karbi Anglong and Dima Hasao districts, Lasingphee blankets of bamboo and cotton in southern Assam’s Cachar district.

Equally important are the traditional bell metal and brass industries of Assam, Hajo and Sarthebari being the primary centre of such crafts. The most prominent objects made in such workshops of ‘kaah’ include Xorais, Botas, and numerous crockery items, etc, which are used for both domestic and religious purposes. 

Further, Cane and bamboo craft, pottery and terracotta, jewellery making, making music instruments, etc, also remain major traditions of art and crafts in Assam. 

TRADITIONAL ASSAMESE CUISINE, ATTIRE, MUSIC AND DANCE

Like the diverse state to which it belongs, Assamese cuisine is also diverse, as it accommodates and satisfies the taste buds of the multi-ethnic population. The traditional Assamese food plate consists of ‘bhaat’ (steamed rice), dal, bhaji (fried vegetables) and a fish or meat curry. Different varieties of meat and fish are a part of the cuisine namely, chicken, mutton, pork, ducks, pigeons, and even silkworms, locusts, eel, wildflower, deer meat, etc.

Some of the most popular and famous items that Assamese cuisine is known for include, ‘khaar’, pura maas mankho, dheakiyasak, pitika etc. Often, the meal must be accompanied by ‘nemu’ which means lemon and the meal ends with the consumption of ‘tamul-paan’. Further, while all this constitutes the main course, Assamese food also boasts of a variety of snacks including ‘pitha’ (made with powdered rice and coconut or other fillings), coconut ladoos, etc. 

Assam tea however remains the single most important beverage which is famous nationally and internationally. It makes an appearance in almost every café nationally. Assam which produces almost half of India’s tea, is known for a deep burgundy red cup of tea with a strong odour. Tea gardens are abundant in Assam, the biggest of which are located in the Upper Assam region

TRADITIONAL ASSAMESE ATTIRE

Moving on to the traditional costumes in Assam, the non-tribal Assamese women wear ‘Mekhela-Sador’ which is a two-piece cloth, that looks almost like a saree, but is not so. The men, on the other hand, wear a Dhoti and drape a piece of cloth known as ‘seleng’ over their body.  

Besides this, the various tribal groups that exist within Assam also have their own distinct and equally beautiful costumes.  For instance, The men of the Dimasa tribe wear a ‘Sgaopha’ or ‘Phagri’ which is a turban-like thing that symbolizes their pride, while the ‘Rigu’ is the standard piece of clothing for women of this tribe. The women of the Bodo tribe wrap their bodies in a piece of cloth known as the ‘Dhokna’.

The diversity of Assam is also reflective in the richness of its folk music, which includes Borgeet, Bihu songs, Mising songs, Karbi songs, etc. Moreover, modern music in Assam is also diverse in the sense that people listen to all sorts of music from the legendary artists like Dr Bhupen Hazarika, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, to a new younger generation of artists like Zubeen Garg, Papon and others. Guwahati, the capital of Assam, has also seen the growth of newer genres of music like rock, etc. 

Apart from the Bihu Dance, which is performed during the festival of Bihu, Sattriya dance is perhaps the most respected and a prominent part of Assamese culture. It is a major classical dance of India, which was created by Srimanta Sankardeva. The core of these dances is mythological stories, represented in an artistic manner. 

Other dances in Assam also include the Jumu Nach, Ali Ai Ligang Dance, Deodhani, Bhortal Nritya, Bagurumba, Khamba Lim, etc. 

CONCLUSION

Therefore, the land of the red river and blue hills displays a colourful mix of cultures of the multi-ethnic population that resides in the region. This intermixture of tribal and non-tribal elements in its culture gives the culture of the Assamese, a unique character, which beholds and captivates anyone who visits Assam and bonds the people of Assam to their homeland eternally. 

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SUICIDE PREVALENCE IN JAPAN 

Sign board at the entrance of Aokigahara Forest (Suicide Forest) that beg suicidal visitors to think about their loved ones and to seek help if they’re considering taking their life in the forest

For years, the Japanese had failed to identify depression and problems of the mind as legitimate problems and ignored them persistently. It is only in recent times, perhaps owing to a wider worldview provided by the 21st-century global world, that these problems which are as common in Japan as any other part of the world have come to light.

Japan ranks among the top countries in terms of a number of deaths by suicide. In 2019, the death of approximately 20.1 thousand people was recorded by suicide, and although the figure has significantly reduced from the previous years, it’s still quite high. In fact, suicides have been such an accepted fact in Japanese history that a forest called the Aokigahara Forest is deemed as a ‘suicide forest’ where people go to kill themselves, mostly by hanging themselves to the trees of the forest.

The large scale of suicides that Japan witnesses every year, can perhaps be attributed to some distinct factors, although there is bound to be exceptions, given the very personal nature of such tragedies.

❖ Cultural and Historical practices: For the longest time, Japanese culture has identified suicide as not a sin (unlike Christianity) but rather as a way of taking responsibility for one’s actions. Far from being deemed as tragic or feeling the need to reduce its rates, the Japanese often interpreted suicide as honourable. This notion was perhaps the by-product of the ‘seppuku’ practices followed in the Samurai tradition, according to which the Samurai’s ritual suicides were honourable. In recent times, these ideas that romanticize suicide has been discarded to an extent, and a greater emphasis on mental health has acquired more importance. 

❖ Financial Reasons: Statistics suggest that young men between the age of 22-40 are most commonly the victims of suicide and this is attributed to the financial problems brought about by unemployment and employment on the basis of short term contracts.

❖ Isolating technology: Japan’s culture of not complaining further increases the troubles for individuals. Not being able to express one’s feelings adequately, and further, the introduction of newer technologies, isolate people to an extent that they might become helpless.

❖ Karoshi which means ‘death from overwork’ is one of the most prominent causes of suicide in Japan. The term was invented in the 1970s as a result of a number of deaths that had been brought about by work-related stresses and pressures. However, it still remains quite persistent in contemporary times. Numerous studies on work culture have brought into light the collectivist and hierarchical nature of Japanese society, unlike the western societies which are individualistic and non-hierarchical. What this means for Japanese society is that in order to move up the hierarchy in their work status Japanese people often tend to overwork themselves so as to please their bosses and maintain group harmony.

THE ROLE OF YAKUZA IN JAPAN

Men donning Yakuza style tattoos | Credit: Jorge/Wikimedia Commons

The avenue of organized crime in Japan has been dominated by the Yakuza, known as bōryokudan or gokudō, for years. These Yakuza groups are primarily mafia-like criminal organizations whose existence is deeply entrenched in Japanese history. These groups were at their glory in the 1960s with gang membership of about 184, 000 but in the 21st century, it has been reduced to about 80,000 members. The Yakuza comprises of several gangs which are affiliated to about 20 conglomerate gangs, of which the Yamaguchi-Gumi is the largest.

Living up to its name of a criminal organisation, the Yakuza engage in a number of shady activities including extortion, blackmail, smuggling, prostitution, drug trafficking, gambling, loan sharking, day- labour contracting, and other rackets. But the control of the Yakuza over Japan stretches across different fields, even unlikely ones such as entertainment industries, restaurants and bars and taxi companies, and other major factories and businesses. Unsurprisingly, the Yakuza are also involved in international crimes.

One of the major activities that the Yakuza are known to engage in is Drug trafficking especially of methamphetamine, although such activities are only condoned by some gangs and others such as the Yamaguchi-Gumi strictly disapprove of such actions. Perhaps even further down the moral scale than drug trafficking, the Yakuza are infamous for engaging in human trafficking in extensive scales. Often young girls from small villages are persuaded to come to big cities by the Yakuza, who promise them good jobs and respectable positions in the society, but in reality, forcing them to become sex workers after they arrive. They also follow a practice of extortion specific to Japan, known as ‘sōkaiya’ which basically means a protection racket.

However, the Yakuza’s relationship with Japanese society is more complex than it might seem to appear in the first glance. While some natives are completely repulsed by the idea of the Yakuzas, others perceive it as a form of a necessary evil. The possible reason for this may be the Yakuza’a existence in Japanese society for hundreds of years and also some philanthropic deeds that the Yakuza has undertaken for the people of their nation. For instance, during the Kobe Earthquake of 1955 and the Tsunami in 2011, the gangs took up the task of delivering and distributing essential supplies to victims. While the Yakuza has certainly evolved into a relatively more crime-free group compared to it’s earlier manifestations, the nature of the group and its relationship with Japanese society still remains complicated, especially the one between the police and the Yakuza, both of which, much suspect work hand in hand.

THE NIGHTLIFE IN JAPAN – PROSTITUTION RINGS

Prostitution (baishun, i.e, selling spring) declared illegal by the Japanese government is present in Japan, on an extensive scale. Their existence which is in direct contradiction to the law, is perhaps possible by their affiliation and control by the Yakuza and also perhaps due to their covert means of operating. The Japanese government in the second half of the 20th century had banned prostitution, but this ban catered to only a narrow definition, i.e, intercourse in exchange of payment, therefore living ample space for functioning of oral copulation, erotic massages, etc, which are therefore entirely legal. This, these activities along and even intercourse, is a largely occurring event in the nightlife of Japan. Tokyo, for example, is believed to have one of the largest red-light districts in the world. Pink salons that specialize in oral pleasure are common and so are some shady ‘spa’ businesses which carry out such activities, under an innocent pretext.

Photograph of girls working in pleasure house “Sakuraya” in port town of Yokohama

Most of the prostitutes are trafficked slaves, and what’s even more sickening is the child prostitution prevalent in Japan. The legal age of consent for a girl in Japan is 13, so most underage sex is protected by law, and often conveniently blame the girls, as inviting it upon themselves. The child prostitution racket in Japan, often called the JK Trade is perhaps embedded in the Japanese culture of sexualizing young girls, which is evident in the craze over maid cafes, and the way young girl’s bodies are represented in anime and manga, all of which are a very prominent part of Japanese Culture.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, it may well be understood that Japanese culture, is not as bright and cheery as it may seem at first glance. It is an undeniable fact that therefore, that there is another side to the coin, i.e, while Japanese culture is rightful to boast about its many vibrant festivals and whatnot, the dark side of Japan primarily represented by the existence of Yakuza and its role in Japanese society, Suicide prevalence in Japan and prostitution rings along with other issues such as poor economy, sub-standard educational and bureaucratic system and high rising prices, are ever-present.

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KYOTO – THE CULTURAL CENTRE

While the rich culture of Japan is prevalent throughout the entire nation, the city of Kyoto in the southwest of the country is regarded as the cultural centre, by the Japanese and foreigners alike, perhaps owing to its historical roots. Kyoto was the capital of the country until the latter half of the 19^th century, and therefore people often perceive it as the birthplace of the Japanese culture. Home to about 2000 temples and shrines along with imperial palaces, and other ancient buildings, it was within this city that several distinct cultural institutions of Japan, like, tea ceremony (cha-no-yu) and flower arranging (ikebana), the theatrical arts of Noh, Kabuki and traditional dance, were initiated and spread to other parts of the country. Kyoto also has housed masterpieces of calligraphy, sculpting, painting and architecture. The population in Kyoto still remains involved in such activities, creating masterpieces that are deemed as national treasures, conducting tea ceremonies, and having an active theatrical life with annual processions by Noh performers, etc. The three festivals that the citizens celebrate in great grandeur and pride are Aoi in May, Gion in July and Jidai in October.

Aoi Festival

Gion Festival

Jidai Festival

The Japanese population along with the whole world, has embraced the culture of Kyoto, which can be implied by the recent popularity of the phrase, “Sekai no Kyoto” (The World’s Kyoto). The popular tourist destinations like the many number of Shrines and temples (Fushimi Inari Shrine, Gingaku – Ji Temple, Kinkaku – Ji temple, etc ), the Arashiyama Bamboo grove, and others such as Gion and Pont-cho street attract tourists from all over the world, and even the native Japanese who try to go to the city atleast once in their lives.

RELIGION – Buddhism and Shintoism

Japan has seen the growth of two major religions, i.e, Buddhism which was brought about by foreign forces and the native religion of Shintoism, both of which have peacefully co-existed. However, the  division between followers of Buddhism and Shintoism is far from watertight, as most often, those Japanese who follow Buddhism, sometimes also declare themselves as followers of Shinto. Therefore, any claims of the population being divided solely into Buddhists and Shintos do not hold.

Shintoism

Tori Gate

Fushimi Inari-taisha

Shinto, i.e, the way of the Gods (Kami) is the oldest religion in Japan and possibly the most followed, as evidence suggests that about 80% of the Japanese identify themselves as followers of Shinto. There are no historical evidences that suggest the identity of the founder of the religion, and a lack of sacred texts and any sort of formalized teachings, indicate the fact that unlike Buddhism, it’s not an organized religion. The cornerstone of Shintoism is the belief in Kami, i.e, the spiritual elements of nature that exist in waterways, trees, mountains, and geographical regions.  The only foundation of the religion in conclusion is therefore, reverence of peace and harmony, respect for all elements of nature and the belief that being in nature means a closer access to Kami.

How has Buddhism influenced Japanese culture?

The Great Buddha (Daibutsu) at Kōtoku-in, Kamakura, in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan

Buddhism which officially came to Japan around 525 BC, has been able to acquire a large following in the country, with about 90 million of the population identifying themselves as Buddhists. While the religion faced a certain conflict between pro-Buddhist and anti-Buddhism factions, it was successful in establishing its foundations in Japan and subsequently changed the political structure, technological fields and brought in a myriad of sophisticated cultural practices like dance, music, a new writing system and also Buddhist art, that have undoubtedly had a greater impact on the Japanese culture as a whole.

‘Matsuri’ – THE CULTURAL FESTIVALS OF JAPAN

A very important and lively aspect of Japanese culture, is the many number of ‘matsuri’ or the cultural festivals, which bring in cheerful spirits for the native population, who often enjoy the festivities wearing colourful and mostly, traditional clothes and getting involved in the activities the festivals are known for. Research suggests that Japan witnesses as many as 200-300 festivals in a year, all of which are big, fun and crowded events, and are deeply entrenched within the Japanese Culture.

These festivals which occur over the course of a year, differ greatly in terms of the season in which they occur.

SUMMER: The festivals in summer are known worldwide for their use of fireworks or what the Japanese call, Hanabi. These fireworks light up the sky in bright colours and the people often dressed in their Yukatas and Kimonos,  gather in large numbers to watch the show.

Summer Fireworks in Fukuoka

SPRING: In Spring, the Cherry blossoms or Sakura trees turn pink which in itself is a site of majestic beauty. The spring festivals are centered around these trees, where people from different regions come and enjoy activities under the cherry blossoms either in a park, a castle, etc. The Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival is perhaps one of the most famous of such festivals that are conducted in Japan.

Cherry Blossom Festival

Tokyo during spring

WINTER AND FALL: Besides Summer and Spring, cultural festivals of unique natures are also practiced in Winters and Fall. In winter, for instance, the Sapporo Snow Festival and Nozawa festival attract thousands of visitors and so does the Fujiwara Autumn Festival in fall.

Nozawa Fire Festival

The festivals, therefore, are of varied nature, some being calm and peaceful, where people visit shrines and temples, while others are lively events for the Japanese to enjoy with their loved ones.

What role have ANIME and MANGA played in Japanese culture?  

Anime, as the name suggests, is Japanese animation which is either hand-drawn or computer-animated. The diverse fan base of Anime, which is worldwide,is perhaps because of it’s very distinct characteristics that distinguish it from animation produced in any other parts of the world. Manga, on the other hand, are more like Japanese comics or Graphic novels which are read from right to left, while western comics can only be read left to right. Often, those mangas which are able to acquire a large fan base, like Naruto, One Piece, Dragon Ball, Haikyu, etc, are converted into anime. Both Anime and Manga, over the years have become a very crucial aspect of Japanese culture.                                            

Still from Grave of the Fireflies (1980)

Manga Comic

The unconventionality associated with anime and manga, is perhaps a contributor to it’s popularity among adults, and not just kids. These stories that are available in all genres like action, romance, slice of life, rom-com, supernatural, horror, etc, break the notion that anime is meant only for kids. The fan base remain hooked on each episode or chapter, due to the unpredictability of what might happen next.

In Japan, anime and Manga, has become a way of life for ‘Otakus’ (which however is an offensive word for the Japanese) a term used for those hardcore fans of these elements, to the extent that they give up their social lives and withdraw into their homes watching anime and playing video games. The emotional attachment to these forms of entertainment becomes evident when numerous instances of funerals held for anime characters come into light. But anime in Japan is not only limited to the private sphere. It’s presence is abundant everywhere, on trains, buses, advertisements, etc. Moreover, anime and manga also provide a deep insight into Japanese culture, in both covert and overt ways. Most animes have episodes dedicated to the cultural festivals, fireworks, cherry blossoms, otaku culture, Japanese way of living, tea ceremonies and so on. The town of Akihabara near Tokyo, is believed to be the Anime centre, the streets of which are lined with numerous anime shops selling anime merchandise of various kinds. There are also many themed cafes like maid and butler cafes, which attract a lot of tourists. Even outside Akihabara, it is not uncommon to find many huge or life-size statues that give tribute to anime characters and their creators. Anime themed parks, which are a sight of awe for tourists as well as the natives are also abundant in Japan, the most famous of them being the Naruto theme park, Attack on Titans theme park, etc. Often, streets of Japan are also lined with cosplayers, impersonating characters from famous animes. In fact, cosplaying is also an important part of Japanese culture, which has immense importance, as evident by the numerous cosplay competitions held throughout the nation. Anime conventions are also likely events in Japan which are attended by Anime fans from Japan and all over the world.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE, CUISINE AND ATTIRE

Traditional Japanese Architecture is attributed to a distinct aesthetic, that can be attributed to some unique characteristics used in the making of these homes. The dominant feature of traditional Japanese homes is wood, that is preferred in the making of the house over other materials such as stone, perhaps owing to the unpredictability brought about by earthquakes. Wood is respected by the Japanese to the extent that the wood in homes remain in their natural forms and is not concealed by paint. The doors in these houses are fusuma, or sliding doors while the windows are movable screens (shoji). The floors in Japanese houses are covered with tatami mats, made with straw, that along with the wood provides a distinct smell to the traditional Japanese houses. Outside the houses, are what may be called verandahs, which are a wooden extension to the house, which are often elevated from the ground, sometimes covered with shutters.

Japanese cuisine basically comprises of regional and traditional foods, and primarily focuses on combining steamed rice (gohan) which is their staple with one or more main and side dishes and miso soup or pickles. While this typically describes the traditional meal, there are also many other variants of food that the Japanese are known for like, Sushi, Ramen, tempura, Curry rice, Yakitori, etc.

Sushi

The traditional attires of Japanese men and women, like all other aspects of culture, are also varied. The Japanese Kimono is the most iconic and famous traditional piece of clothing in Japan. Yukata is another traditional attire, which is mainly dorned during summer, due to the breezy material, unlike Kimono which are reserved for more fancy and formal occasions. Other pieces of traditional Japanese clothing include Haori, Jinbei, Hakama, etc.

Traditional Japanese Clothing

Japanese women donning Kimono

INDIA AND JAPAN – THE CULTURAL TIES

India and Japan have continued to maintain strong cultural ties, ever since the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, from India. The countries have often engaged in mutual cultural exchanges and also follow some similar cultural traditions and ideas along with Buddhism, like the commitment to Democracy, pluralism, open societies, tolerance, etc. The Namaste India Festival which is held in Tokyo every year is aimed at realizing the agreement between the two countries about holding cultural festivals, on 2007, which marked the 50^th anniversary of the Indo-Japan cultural agreement. These festivals aim at bringing an insight of each country’s culture, that includes food, music, souvenirs, clothes, etc, to the other.

PM Narendra Modi with PM Shinzo Abe performing Ganga Arti in Varanasi

CONCLUSION

The above quote by Hector Garcia, in  ‘Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life’ therefore sums up the very dynamic and cheerful  Japanese culture, which has fascinated many souls over the years. Therefore, it wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that the Japanese culture which comes to life in it’s cultural festivals, anime, cuisine, architecture, an unbreakable link with nature and various other quirky things that people associate with Japan have been able to become an object of awe and interest for people all over the world.

“The Japanese are skilled at bringing nature and technology together: not man versus nature, but rather a union of the two.”

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How has the flood of 2020 affected Assam so far?

The landscape of Assam which often in its glory shows off the green hills and blue skies, the clear waters of the many rivers that flows through it, have been significantly changed if not totally altered by the heavy floods. A number of pictures and videos have surfaced on the internet which provides a gloomy picture of roads leading to a vast sea of water, roads surrounded by water on both sides, people living on the streets in temporary shelters along with their domesticated animals, etc. In the flood-affected districts, most homes have been completely submerged underwater and many others have had water gush into their homes, the water level rising day by day. People have been forced to abandon their ancestral homes and properties, and although this happens every year, it’s never quite easy to move away from one’s properties given the unpredictable nature of the situation. Most of the people have also abandoned their vehicles like motorbikes and cars, as boats have become the principal and only mode of transportation in these areas. In fact, carpenter shops have begun making boats, selling each boat for around 6000 Rs (approx).           

The State Disaster Management Authority has stated that around 2543 villages are completely submerged and more than 1,22,573.16 hectares of crop area has been completely destroyed, snatching away people’s livelihood and inducing a scarcity of food, altogether. Distraught people from such areas have been repeatedly pleading for aid, and while some has come in the form of relief camps, and charity donations, the larger problem of such events occurring every year looms large. 

The situation in Assam still remains grave and is likely to become worse in the following months, as more rain showers are expected to arrive. As of 29^th July 2020, about 107 people have been killed as a result of the disastrous floods that have affected over 50 lakh people (approx.) across all 33 districts. Some districts have been more affected by others, Goalpara has so far been the most affected district closely followed by Morigaon. Diphu, in the Karbi Anglong district of Assam, has also been devastated by floods especially after 28^th July, with water gushing into people’s homes and also the Diphu Medical College, which was only newly constructed. Locals have blamed the situation on the poor drainage system, filling up of wetlands and unplanned road construction. 

The wildlife of the state, which populates the Kaziranga National Park (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary and several such sanctuaries, have been as adversely affected by the ongoing floods. The Kaziranga National park which is known as the largest breeding site of the one-horned rhinoceros (boasting about 2200 population of rhinos) was at a point submerged up to 95% and the inundation still has not completely receded. The Pabitora wildlife sanctuary also continues to remain inundated. While the worst that has come off it is the death of around 225 animals as of yet, that includes 15 of one-horned rhinoceroses, 4 elephants, 1 tiger, and 178 hog deers, the situation for these animals continue to remain grave. As their habitats remain submerged underwater, most of these animals have to flee in search of higher ground. It is almost an annual scenario, as the annual floods constantly bring into threat the habitats of these animals, most of which move into the nearby hills of the Karbi Anglong district crossing the NH-37 Highway. Many animals also stray into nearby villages, looking for food and shelter. For instance, a tiger was seen taking shelter at a nearby house. Many other pictures of animals have sprung up, which shows their miserable and helpless condition. A rhino was seen taking a rest in the highway, while many herds of elephants have frequently been seen crossing roads and looking for food in nearby empty villages. 

What causes Annual Floods?

While it is perhaps impossible to root these annual floods into some concrete causes, the most probable causes seem to be an amalgamation of both natural and man-made factors :

• The river BRAHMAPUTRA: The river brings in a large number of sediments and discharges from Tibet and other regions, and when this silt is deposited in Assam, it leads to erosion and floods, as the state is completely surrounded by hills. 
• HEAVY RAINFALL: The North-eastern region has always received heavy rain showers averaging up to 2480mm to 6350 mm. Some parts, however, witness more frequent and heavier rain showers, like Arunachal Pradesh, parts of Upper Assam, Bhutan, etc, which consequently leads to flowing of water to Lower Assam and the resultant floods. 
• SEISMIC ZONE: Assam is also a seismic zone and therefore, the character of the Brahmaputra remains quite unstable. In fact, the 1950 earthquake in Assam, which was extreme in nature, led to the rising of the riverbed of the Brahmaputra to up to 1.5m. 
• MAN-MADE CAUSES: Further, manmade causes like human inhabitation near the riverbeds, deforestation and construction of seemingly weak embankments that fail to hold the forces of water, all contribute to the annual Assam floods.                              

What can be done? 

As of now, about 500 relief camps and distribution centres have been established by the state authorities, to help the displaced populations.  Donations in the form of food supplies, medicines and medical supplies, and other items of importance have been donated by NGOs, and some voluntary reliefs have also been provided. The government has set up the Chief Minister Relief Fund, for voluntary donations of money to help the aggrieved. Rescue operations have also been conducted, for humans and animals alike. 

Helpful as all this may be, however they still have failed to address some bigger problems. For instance, one of the most important products of need is safe drinking water. Ironical as it may sound, being covered with water all around and still having none to drink, safe drinking water remains one of the most important basic necessities, failing to procure which would even lead to greater health problems. The situation of Flood this year has also been worsened by the Covid-19 pandemic, as the norms of social distancing and basic hygiene is difficult to follow under these circumstances. Moreover, most often the flood-affected people have refused to go into the relief camps, as they see a possibility of testing corona positive, living in such cramped spaces with thousands of other people. 

Conclusion

Therefore, while the Assam Flood of 2020 like its predecessors has failed to acquire much importance in the eyes of National media and authorities, it’s severity cannot be neglected. The need of the hour is however not just a temporary solution in the form of faulty and weak embankments that the government has been doing so far, which rather than helping, only accelerate the situation. Many experts on the matter have provided more enduring solutions like a basin-wide approach, flood-pain zoning like in the US, etc. The central government which in it’s 10^th Five Year plan had allocated only a minimum of 22 crores for 10 flood management programmes, still continues to neglect the situation of Assam floods and the same can be said for Indian celebrities, mainstream media houses, etc. It cannot be said, however, that whether the National Media and authorities fail to understand the gravity of the situation, or it’s the age-old story of North-east India’s struggle in getting the same opportunities as the mainland India. 

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The birth of NATO as an organisation of military cooperation was in the backdrop of the Cold War era, which saw a constant power struggle between the two superpowers, i.e, USA and USSR. The Cold war between these two superpowers had practically divided the entire world (except the NAM countries) into two alliances – Western & Eastern. The Western Alliance which was later formalised into NATO was led by the US and joined by most of the Western European countries, as the name suggests. Since it’s the foundation, the policy of “Collective Defense” has been at the heart of the Alliance, the policy being a declaration by its member states that an armed attack on one of them would be considered an attack on all of the NATO countries and therefore, all these countries would be obliged to retaliate. This policy, therefore, brings about a spirit of solidarity within the member countries.       

The Cold war era continued to witness a major military role played by the Alliance, particularly after the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies united themselves by the Warsaw Pact in 1955, as a counter-power to the rising NATO forces in Europe. The formation of the Warsaw Pact was triggered by the gradual enlargement of NATO which was joined by West Germany in 1955 and now constituted fifteen member states, with the original member states of Belgium, Britain, Canada, Italy, Iceland, France, Denmark, Luxembourg, Norway, the Netherlands, Portugal and the United States, later joined by Greece and Turkey in 1952. At its height, the tension between the NATO Alliance and Warsaw Pact countries was symbolized by the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, which was perhaps the greatest physical representation of the Cold War, as it was seen to be dividing East Germany from West Germany, and their respective Western and Eastern European counterparts.  

However, it was almost apparent during this time that neither party had any desire of engaging in serious conflict. Thus, for the entirety of the Cold War era, the two superpowers never engaged in a real nuclear exchange and although a few armed conflicts probably emerged, there are no shreds of evidence and thus cannot account for any major conflict between the two superpowers. In fact, a major portion of the time period when the Soviet Union was still alive, a ‘Detente’ phase, had existed which basically meant that both the blocs accepted the status quo and did not make any attempts to change it by creating newer sources of conflict among each other and their allies. Therefore, in the 1960’s the conventional role that NATO played as a defence organisation had undergone a major reshuffling that began with this new phase of the relationship which saw the rise of the new strategic concept of ‘Flexible Response’. As now the Alliance had greater avenues of military responses in events of the conflict, moving away from the earlier binary provided by the ‘Massive Retaliation’ strategic concept between, a total nuclear exchange or peace.  

Gradually, the Soviet Union began to disintegrate for economic (heavy defence expenditure, lower standards of living among people), political and ideological reasons. Although NATO continued to hold its ground, in the world sphere of military and defence. While the Warsaw Pact ended in 1991, it was not as if, NATO’s transition was smooth sailing post-1991. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, US was the only superpower left in the world, and therefore, this created a sort of political vacuum (US dominance with no strong power to contend it), which NATO sought to balance out by introducing various measures like the establishment of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council, the Mediterranean dialogue, etc. It also lent its support to the United Nations in ending wars such as Yugoslavian Civil War but perhaps in its striving for engaging in legitimate and righteous actions, the NATO has often also engaged in some actions, deemed as illegal.

This can be best illustrated by the case of the Kosovar Albanians, when NATO in June 1999, carried out airstrikes so as to prevent the native Kosovar Albanians from going through ethnic cleansing that was being carried out by the Serbian ruling population. What made these actions illegal, despite their righteous purpose was that it was not backed by the UN Security Council’s authorization and also defied the UN Charter, which had declared that NATO can only be activated in case of one of its member countries being under a threat. 

In modern times, the issue of “burden-sharing” within NATO, has become one of great importance and can be considered as a reason for increasing unpopularity of NATO within some member countries like the US. While some observers had raised this issue even in the earlier times, it was most recently brought up by the US President Donald Trump in the July 2018 Summit of the organization. He has put growing pressure on the Eastern European countries within the alliance and more so on those who have consistently failed to meet the two major goals – spending 2% of the country’s GDP in defence (4% according to the July Summit) and 20% of defence spending on equipment purchases. 

Despite its various shortcomings and controversial actions, it would not be an exaggeration to say that NATO has also undertaken various initiatives for the good of the world. The organization which constitutes about 30 member states in 2020, has undergone significant enlargement since it’s the foundation. Although, enlargement has not only been limited to an increase in the number of members but also on an ideological scale. While it started off primarily as a defence organization, relating to matters of security and peace of its member countries, the conventional definition of “security” has also changed. Therefore stimulating changes in the way NATO works to keep maintaining the security not only of its member countries but also of non-member countries. Peacekeeping and Peacemaking have become its priorities, which is not an easy work in any time period and especially not in the 21^st century, which has seen newer innovations in technology than any other age. In lieu of recent events, NATO countries have also played an equally significant role in helping to tackle the global pandemic of COVID – 19 by primarily sending supplies and equipment, where it was required. For instance, the Czech Republic and Turkey sent medical supplies to Spain and Italy, when they requested for help. 

Therefore, the nature of NATO as an organization has changed quite drastically from its foundation days and describes the evolving role played by NATO in the world, in terms of military power, security, peace, etc. 

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