Hyperloop is a link between a train and an airplane because its shape resembles a train while its projected speed is similar to that of an aeroplane. It is the most recent approach in the field of passenger and goods transportation proposed by the CEO and owner of Space X, Elon Musk.

Explaination and Detailed Study

The concept of Hyperloop consists of a sealed tube or connection of tubes with low air pressure in which a pod can travel in the absence of friction and air resistance. This was proposed by Elon Musk in 2012. His initial research and planning constituted reduced-pressure tubes in which pressurized capsules travel in air bearings driven by a linear induction motor and axial compressors. This project was open-sourced for individuals and other private ventures. Currently, the Mumbair-Pune corridor is officially researching this concept.  

Theory based on Hyperloop

Hyperloop concept relies largely on the reduction of friction and air resistance which implies that one needs to create a vacuum inside the sealed tube so that fast propagation would take place, but we also know creating a complete vacuum inside a free space is nearly impossible. Hyperloop is a vactrain system with a pressure of 100 pascals.

For the propagation, the shape and size of the pod matters a lot and especially if we are moving inside a tunnel-like tube. According to the original concept put forward by Elon Musk the capsule or pods will float (0.5-1.3 mm) layer of air beneath it.

The pressure to “skis”. Another hyperloop technology involves Maglev. Maglev is a system of train transportation using two sets of magnets. One to push the train off the track and another to pull it forward.

The linear induction motors located along the tube would accelerate and decelerate the capsule to the required speed and this will vary for each section of the tube route. In the earlier hyperloop concept conceptualised by Elon Musk an electric driven fan or inlet fan is attached in front of capsule like the axial compressor in older aeroplanes.

Talking about the shape, the proposed design of the hyperloop is 7ft 4 inches in diameter, and the projected speed of the same is 1220km/hr, maintaining aero-dynamic efficiency, which is much greater than a passanger aeroplane which moves with the highest speed of 930 km/hr.

Constructional Research on Capsules

Hyperloop is built by a new type of carbon fibre composite which is eight times stronger than aluminium and ten times than steel accessories. It is also much less in weight about 1.5 times less heavy than aluminium, this composite is named as “Vibranium” based on the 2018 hollywood movie Black Panther.

The pods will be prepared using two layers of Vibranium one for the inside and other for the outside layers of hyperloop capsule.

Fuel based Research on Hyperloop

Hyperloop is better than air passenger transport and high-speed rails because it rarely produces any noise and is environmental-friendly. No green house gases are released in this process making it a better and more sustainable mode of transport.

The modern-day hyperloops are electric, they are similar to electric cars. With hyperloop, we eliminate sources, like wheels on a track, and we actually have a sound barrier inherent in our tube design. There is no chance of noise and air pollution and thus there are no health adversities.

Cost Estimation and Expenses of Hyperloop

The constructional cost by Hyperloop one was estimated to be somewhere between 19 to 20 billion Euros or 22 billion USD according to 2016, there might be variation in prices today. Also, there will be a variation in expenses as hyperloop will be more expensive than aeroplane, all because of creation of vacuum needs large and expensive machines and the carbon synthesis material is hard to prepare.

Technologies Associated to Hyperloop

There are many technologies associated to hyperloop and works similarly, which includes Swiss Metro, SG Maglev; that has devised a train in Japan which does not need vacuum tubes and run with the speed of 630 km/hr, which is also the fastest train in the world and it is designed using aerodynamic shape. The major challenge in the success of hyperloop is the already running trains with such a high speed. Though Hyperloop is in its development phase, we can witness its speed which is estimated using a partial vacuum model as creating a complete vacuum is a myth until someone makes it possible.

 In 2015 Space-X announced its competition, in which more than 700 teams participated in the event and showcased their innovation of pod designs, material and most importantly safety implications which are still not resolved, because of which many people criticize this very idea of Hyperloop.

Another event took place which also acted as a competition of speed and Technical University of Munich won the contest with a speed of 324-330 km/hr.

But in the third competition which took place in 2018 with proper safety precautions, the Technical University of Munich recreated a record by beating their previous record, this time the highest attained speed was 463 km/hr.

But still problem remained the same Hyperloop is much behind the Shanghai Maglev or SG Maglev.

Countries Initiating Hyperloop Projects

Countries have deep interests in developing this project. Major initiatives have been taken by major superpowers like the USA where this project was first started. Many institutes and private companies are researching on this project in order to finish this project and accomplish the assigned speed of 1220 km/hr, countries like China are researching for trains similar to hyperloop.

While Japan is searching for faster maglev trains using the same technology. Hyperloop project is also attaining speed in Dubai and India.

Hyperloop Transporting Technology will start its human trials in 2020 by completing its pod or capsule development. For now, only a few people can travel using this technology.

India’s Approach and Projects on Hyperloop

India is the only country that is officially pertaining to hyperloop technology for Mumbai-Pune corridors. The Hyperloop project will be based on the ‘Swiss Challenge Method’. This project will be done in association with Virgin Hyperloop One.

Amongst many grounded projects Amaravati via Vijayawada is also one of them it was proposed by Government of Andhra Pradesh and it was done in association with HTT USA.

 The US based company did all the surveys and planned for appropriate capsules and the 700 km was setup by which this loop line could have connected Anantapur, Vijayawada, Amravati, Vizag but all this changed and project stopped after the election and ruling party changed.

Delhi via Mumbai connecting Jaipur and Indore is also amongst the incomplete projects due to lack of interest by the government because of the other ongoing issues. This project was set forward by DGW Hyperloop, Indore. This loop is 1317 km long, and it claims to cover the distance between Mumbai and Delhi in just 80 mins that’s hard to believe but it is true as the company had already done all its trials.

Amritsar via Chandigarh connecting Ludhiana was proposed in August 2019 and is in progress, this project was sanctioned at the cost of Rs 56,000 crore. This project is stopped due to nationwide lockdown. Virgin Hyperloop One which is the most recent HT claims that distance between two cities can be summarised from 5 hours to mere 30 min. This loop was decided to be 232km in length.

Amongst all these projects the best project is Mumbai to Pune project Virgin Hyperloop One was all set with its planning and Devendra Fradnavis then C.M. of Maharashtra initiated this project and this project was assigned to Pune Metropolitan Development Authority, this was made with an initiative to reduce time of travelling from 3 hours to 20 mins. This project was successful as Virgin Hyperloop and DP World together invested $ 500 million, but all this changed when the Devendra Fadnavis government was replaced with the present coalition government led by Uddhav Thackrey.

Why Hyperloop and Future of Pods and Tubes

Hyperloop is better than any other land or track transport because it essentially does not release any harmful gases or chemicals into the environment and by adding little more speed it can become the fastest means of transportation. It may be more expensive than air transport but is safer because there is a specified area designed for its propagation while aeroplane and helicopter are riskier as they fly freely in the open air.

The future of pods indicates to redesigning of the pods so that the desired speed could be attained and tubes need to be aligned at the fixed angle so that there is no chance of accidents.

The hardest and the most dreadful task is to create vacuum so that high speed propagation of capsules can be done, which needs to be rectified.

We will surely witness the advancement in this field in the near future as no one could assure the confirm completion of this project which is seemingly futuristic.

Conclusion

Speed enhancement is the major factor in development of HLTT.

The speed of Hyperloop is increasing slowly and gradually and the breakthrough in the same could be achieved if we are able to achieve the vacuum state where there is no air, but it also poses risk of alignment and directions because slight variation in the same could lead to accidents although magnet protects them from getting out of their way and thus they remain over the track.

In an augmented form development of the hyperloop, it seems like a difficult task, but it is not impossible at the same time.

In short, this development is a revolutionary approach and will add greater value to our present day transportation facilities.

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In the field of telecommunication, major emphasis relies on the consumers’ need and work purpose for example if there is a demand for faster network it is quite obvious that we will switch to that network. In the chain of fast-growing networks, 5G is a new member and most advanced too.

The term 5-G Pioneer Band was first coined by Professor Stephen Temple.

This technology replaces the old 3G and 4G networks, which were slower than the proposed 5G network.

Detailed Study

Like earlier networks, 5G network or fifth generation network is a cellular network in which the service area is distributed into small geographical regions called cells. All 5G wireless devices are commonly joined to the internet and telephone network by radio waves through a local antenna in the cell.  The main advantage of this network is that they will have greater bandwidth, giving higher download speeds.

Due to the increased bandwidth, it is expected that the new network will not only work for cell phones like the present cellular networks but is also usable as general Internet Service Providers (ISP) for laptops and PCs, competing with present ISPs such as optical fiber network and will add new applications in Internet of Things (IoT) and machine to machine communication.

Higher-frequency radio waves have a shorter range than the frequencies used by older cell-phone networks, requiring smaller cells. 5G network works upon three frequency bands low, medium, and high. A 5G network will be developed from 3 different types of cells, each one needing different antennas, giving a different trade-off speed for different range and service areas.

Properties of 5G Network

The fifth-generation; network derives information from the wireless router through an electromagnetic spectrum, usually from radio spectra. A radio spectrum consists of various types of frequency bands.

5G network is still not available in many countries around the globe but India is amongst the fortunate countries which had access to this technology. 5G network was introduced by Reliance Jio in India.

The frequency of radio waves ranges between 3 kHz and 300 GHz but this technology is in its development phase so we can’t imagine getting the maximum speed offered by this spectrum. Radio band is categorized as Extremely Low Frequency (ELP), Ultra Low Frequency (ULF), Low Frequency (LF), Medium Frequency (MF), Ultra High Frequency (UHF) and Extremely High Frequency (EHF).

The high-frequency range between 30-300 GHz is called millimeter band, and its wavelength varies from 1-10 mm. Wavelength around this range is termed as millimeter waves. This kind of waves is essential for the development of the 5^th generation network.

The radio spectrum in 5G spectrum is shown below.

How 5G Network is Better than Prior Networks

5G network or the modern-day generation is best known for its ultra-high-speed, high accuracy and accessibility. The area of its application makes our day to day life easier. The process of downloading, uploading and syncing has been reduced to a great extent. Now everyone could enjoy their favorite shows and web series without any pause. High efficiency has played a humangous role in 5G network’s success. This prevents buffering of content like audio, video and helps in faster data processing.

The 4^th generation network was unstable and its connection speed was much lower than the 5^th generation network.

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred through a network at a given time which means that under ideal conditions if any other devices or interferences affect the speed, a device could theoretically experience peak speeds.

Due to which 5G is 20 times faster than 4G.

In 5G network, the size of the antenna was very different than that of the 4G network. Due to shorter wavelengths, shorter antennas are made for the nascently discovered network.

Another difference is 5G network can more easily be understood by the type of data being requested, and can swap into a lower power mode when not in use or when supplying low rates to specific devices, and also turn into a high-powered mode for HD video streaming.

Where 4G lags in providing all the data, needed to a growing number of users and mobile devices, 5G opens the airwaves for more internet based technologies like smart traffic lights, wireless sensors, wearable gadgets, etc.

Application of 5G Network

5G network is broadly used in enhanced mobile broadband, mission critical communications and massive IOTs.

5G finds its major use in development of new technologies. High speed network connections are made possible due to this approach.

Working of 5G Network

Following are the ways 5G network works:

1.      Carrier Aggregation

Carrier aggregation is used to improve the system efficiency. In this method, two or more carrier signals are aggregated to support wider bandwidth of upto 100 MHz.

•        Intra-band contiguous: Two carriers are transmitted at neighboring channels

•        Intra-band non-contiguous: Two carriers are transmitted with channel spacing.

•        Inter-band: In this technique different LTE bands are used for transmission simultaneously. 

2.      Small Cell Concept

In order to enhance efficiency, the cell is divided into micro and pico sections. Spectrum reusability allows adding more users in a small geographical area and handle network more efficiently. 

 3.      MIMO Concept

MIMO is a technology which consists of multiple antennas for transmission and reception. Number of antennas is directly proportional to transmission and reception.

  4.      WiFi offloading

Wi-fi offloading is the main feature of future networks. It allows us to connect using wi-fi and cellular networks can be allocated to other users. It is suitable for those places where cellular network quality is extremely poor but the user still has the option to connect to the network without cellular reception. 

 5.      Device to Device Communication

In the D2D communication network, two adjacent devices communicate with each other directly. Network has control over the devices and use the operator to determine the traffic routing between direct and network path.

6.     Cloud–Radio Network Access

 C-RAN is used for effective communication within a centralized information processing done distinctly within the cloud system. It offers a lot of benefits in system implementation, maintenance and is highly efficient. 

Research based on Health Implications of 5G

The most recent approach in 5G is based on its health impacts over humans, animals and vegetations. The wide usage of 2G, 3G and 4G networks have already shown its adverse health consequences due to radiofrequency exposures.  Scientists are taking precautions before switching to 5G.

According to research, the wide-spectrum of drastic health conditions of non-ionizing non-visible radiation and 5G mobile networking technology will affect not only the skin and eyes but will also have an adverse systemic effect too. They stated that 5G will increase the cell tower densities by an order of magnitude which can prove to be a fatal health disaster.

Conclusion

To conclude with, we can see wide usage of 5G in many countries but their usage is also prohibited in some countries due to health precautions and predictions by scientists in that particular nation.

      Exposure to RF radiation according to FCC guidelines can result in:

•       Carcinogenicity: Tumors, Breast Cancers.

•       Geno-toxicity: DNA damage, DNA repair inhibitions, variation in chromatin structures

•       Mutagenicity, Teratogenicity and Neurodegenerative diseases.

DEVELOPMENT OF 5-G IN FUTURE

We will surely witness further more development of this technology in future.

Advancement will surely take place in the technology to make it better so our health will not suffer badly and no threats would imply over using this technology.

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Quantum Dots (QD) are synthesized by nanoscale crystals which can transmit electrons. When UV Rays or Ultraviolet Rays strike over these semiconductor nanoparticles, they can emit light of various colors which is visible due to variation of the wavelength of light rays. The various colour patterns are due to the variation of the wavelength of light rays.

In quantum dots, properties vary according to the shape and type of semiconductor material.

Russian physicist Alexei Ekimov studied in detail over the topics of nanocrystals of Copper Chloride and Cadmium Selenide in a molten glass matrix and he also observed the fluorescence and color gradients. He is credited as the founder of Quantum Dots discovery which dates back to 1977.

Alexander Efros was the first scientist who theoretically explained the concept and Louis Brus introduced the Colloidal Quantum Dots Discovery.

Detailed Study

Quantum Dots are light emitting sources and are also evolving as better forms of LEDs, also known as QLEDs. The color of light emission depends on the difference of the gap between the Valence Band and the Conduction Band which is categorized under the Band Theory which forms the basis of categorization of material whether it is conductor, insulator, or semiconductor.

These particles are very tiny for that reason we categorise this field in Quantum Mechanics. Whenever quantum dots are illuminated by UV Rays than their electrons can get excited to a higher state of energy. It was shown that electronic wave function in quantum dots resembles the ones in real atoms. The optical properties of spherical metallic quantum dots can be explained by Mie Scattering Theory.

Properties OF Quantum Dots

Quantum dots have properties in between bulk semiconductors and discrete atoms or molecules. Their optoelectronic properties vary because of their size. Larger quantum dots of bigger diameter emit longer wavelengths, like Orange or Red, and those with smaller diameter emits shorter wavelengths of light like Green and Blue.

QLEDs versus LEDs

Quantum dot Light Emitting Diode or QLED is better than other types of LEDs because they are very small so they occupy very little space and the amount of light generated by them is brighter than normal LEDs in general.

Difference between the QLED and OLED

QLEDs are comparatively better than OLEDs because they emit more brightness and consume less energy. OLEDs are emissive which means the pixels emit their own light. QLEDs currently designed are transmissive and they fully depend on the LED backlight.

Problem Solving

The most devastating impacts of LED is that of its high power consumption and utilities can be solved using QLEDs.

Modern Day Application

These quantum dots are majorly used as QLEDs in quantum computing, but its use is limited due to its new discovery and high cost. They are also used in solar cells and forms the basis of laser emission. Solar panel is also based on Quantum Dot Theory. Single Electron Transistor and medical imaging can be accomplished using this technology. Due to its usage in fluids, we also use this in inkjet and laser printers’ ink.

Plasma or Chemical Synthesis

Plasma synthesis has been established as one of the most famous gas-phase approaches for the production of quantum dots, usually, for covalent atoms, for example, Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) quantum dots have been synthesized by using non-thermal plasma. The size, shape, surface and composition of quantum dots can be hindered using this method. Quantum dots generated by plasma are in powdered form. They can also be made using Carbon. Research-based on these methods is explained below:

Colloidal Synthesis

In colloidal synthesis, the product neither precipitates as a bulk solid nor remains dissolved. It involves heating the solution at a very high temperature which is a major factor in determining the optimal conditions for nanocrystal growth. The concentration of monomers is another critical factor that needs to be controlled during nanocrystal growth. The growth process of nanocrystals can occur in two different phases, ‘focusing’ and ‘defocusing’. At high monomer concentrations, the critical size is relatively small, resulting in the growth of nearly all particles. In this regime, smaller particles grow faster than large ones as larger crystals require more atoms to grow resulting in ‘focusing’ of size distribution, resulting in a discrete distribution of particles.

Research based on Colloidal Quantum Dots

Colloidal Quantum Dots are solution synthesized semiconductors in low-cost photovoltaics. Change in solar cells absorption can take place using Tuning of Bandgaps, displaying the quantum size effects.

According to a research based on the Colloidal Quantum Dots by Jiang Tang and Edward H Sargent:   

Recent progress in this field involved the reduction of cost of solar cell composition and more eminent panels are build due to the usage of colloidal quantum dots, in addition to it colloidal quantum dots photovoltaics have contributed 5% increment in the solar power conversion efficiency, achieved by the introduction of a new architecture.

Reaseach based on Carbon Quantum Dots

According to a research based on the Carbon Quantum Dots by Shi Ying Lim, Wei Shen and Zhiqiang Gao:

Fluorescent Carbon Nanoparticles or Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) are quality of carbon nanomaterials that have been nascently introduced and have gathered much interest in global market as a potential competitor to conventional semiconductor quantum dots. In addition to their comparable optical properties, they possess desired advantages of low toxicity, environmental friendliness low cost and simple synthetic routes. Since exploration, CQDs have found many applications in the fields of chemical sensing, biosensing, bioimaging, nanomedicine, photocatalysis and electrocatalysis.

Research based on Silicon and Germanium Quantum Dots

The result was formulated by Prof. Guo Guoping, Prof. Li Hai-Ou, team was led by Academician Guo Guoping.

They manufactured high-quality Si MOS quantum dots and achieved a record of spin qubits. Based on this technique, they found both the effect of strength and orientation of the external magnetic field on spin relaxation rates. They summarised when the in-plane external magnetic field is positioned at a certain angle, the spin relaxation ‘hot spot’ could be ‘cooled down’ by two orders of magnitude. This work had a sprawling contribution in twisting the phenomena and solving the practical problems of optimum operating conditions to exploit the spin degrees of freedom in Silicon Quantum Dots.

QLED – A Game Changer in Near Future

QLED has transformed many things to build them more efficiently. From solar cells to normal LEDs quantum dots is tangible everywhere. We hope to witness much more developments in the upcoming days.

Conclusion

To end with, I want to establish a fact that we can see new technology coming up but rarely use them because of its huge expense. However, its sprawling demand and ongoing innovation will surely depreciate its price and we will see a complete change of technology due to its widespread usage, one day.

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