One shouldn’t presume that Beijing and New Delhi have always been on the opposite poles of the spectrum as serious attempts have always been made to facilitate discussion and promote diplomacy in its truest essence. From the Panchseel Agreement of 1945 to the recent Galway valley violence of 2020 – do these countries still believe in dialogue for peace’ as the belief that the Ministry of External Affairs holds or has– Hindi-Chinni Bhai-Bhai period already becoming into Hindi-Chinni bye-bye period.

While promising a stable bilateral relationship it is imperative to note how cross-cutting sensitive issues of the border dispute, country contours, diverging projections of geopolitical interest, security ties with other powers, close affiliations with Pakistan and the United States forces us to look at multiple vantage points in this already complicated affair – thus raising the burning questions whether as INDIA and China both take over the world stage are they willing to ‘confront’ and ‘concile’?

“Today, being the biggest developing countries in the world, China and India are both committed to developing their economy and raising their people’s living standards’’

– Li Peng

INTRODUCTION

The past 60 years of India- China relations have signalled that both countries have been making a concerted effort to embark on seeking mutually acceptable resolutions to the main contention relating to a boundary issue. The major provocations which confront this asymmetrical correspondence been to build mutual trust and confidence. The trust deficit which plagues both sides has decimated the robustness of bilateral relationships where the element of trust is an essential pillar in maintaining a sustained balance. Somehow, the lack of these essential components of confidence-building feigns grounds of hostility towards one – another and gives rise to biases dwelling on power dynamics.

The deepening of relations can be traced to the signing of the Strategic and Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity in 2005 and A Shared Vision for 21st Century in 2008 which serves as a reminder of our neighbourhood while laying foundations for a future that envisions us growing together; however it’s saddening to see how we are walking on eggshells now as our cordial relations reach a breakthrough.

Undoubtedly, India and China have emerged as the two rapidly growing economies and their bilateral relationship to a greater extent has assumed global and strategic relevance. The objective of this article will be to assess and analyze the broad overview of India-China relations, throwing light on issues that fragment them while we chart our future prospects of convergence. It is of utmost importance to questions what lies the way forward for both the ‘dragon’ and the ‘peacock’ as uncertain times dawn and reciprocal development is the need of the hour.

EVOLUTION OF RELATIONSHIP

Taking a glimpse of the past 70 years gone by, China-India relations have moved ahead despite wind and rain and have followed their own course of growth despite all odds. Since the 1950s, the leaders laid the stone to establish diplomatic relations between China and India, as they Cooperatively championed the ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.’

As consensus was maintained in the era of initial cordiality the Panchsheel Agreement was signed which ascribed the ‘guiding principles’ of India-China bilateral relationship as its ideals of ‘non-interference in each other’s internal affairs while respect for territorial unity, integrity and sovereignty’ coursed through both nations.

However, it was Zhou Enlai’s trip to India in June 1954 which was a mark of China’s intent to uphold it promises while also reinstating another historic event where a communist head of government was making a peacetime visit to a non-communist state.

The animosity and hostilities gained momentum during the decade of 1959 – 1976, where this rough patch resulted in the infamous war of 1962. During this period, there was a sharp shift in the perception of China where negative connotations of it being seen as an aggressive neighbour that sought to humiliate a democratic India garnered headlines. A dramatic transference of ideologies as well as values of peaceful and friendly consultation,

established strategic and cooperative partnership for peace and prosperity, while achieving all-round development of bilateral relations marked the much of 1980s.

In the post-1998 scenario after India detonated a nuclear device, China was a staunch critic of this development thus putting a roadblock in their relationship. However, the situation changed after the realisation set in about each other’s contribution to the global economy and to a greater extent started broadening the then-existing bilateral ties. The strain in the relationship was replaced by an era of cooperation in the economic sphere while disagreements on respective political fronts.

While tracing the genealogy of Sino – Indian relations we come across the phase commenced by the Chinese President Xi Jinping and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi by initiating the concept of “hometown diplomacy” which ranged from informal summits in Wuhan and Chennai to strategic communication on long-term issues of global and regional importance while agreeing to facilitate development and close partnership

Today’s achievements of China-India relations embody the concise and regular efforts of several generations from whom we need to draw inspiration from the past as experiences of the present tragically make us critical of each other’s intentions.

As we stand on the brink of a new starting point present-day decision-makers should draw wisdom from our thousands of years of civilisations and explore authentic ways to stay true to the essence of ‘ brotherhood’ envisioned years ago as we look forward towards; “enhancing mutual trust, focusing on cooperation, managing differences and seeking common development”.

CHALLENGES TO THE INDIA-CHINA PARTNERSHIP

Indian President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi often resonate with the philosophy, where the whole world is seen as a family of the whole rather than functioning in splinters, which runs parallel with the Chinese philosophical concept of “universal peace” and “universal love” thus reiterating the belief that the “Dragon-Elephant Tango” does hold the potential to create a new chapter in building a community with a shared future if they agree to make credible and foresighted peaceful endeavours towards the issues of contention like :

• To devise an early settlement of the border problem and to prevent the enduring stalemate from completely undermining the confidence that remains between the two nations
• To reconcile regional strategies in South Asia, Central Asia, ASEAN, and the Indian Ocean;
• To promote confidence-building measures and eliminate misperceptions while avoiding the misreading of each other’s strategic intentions,
• To envisage each other’s core interests and strategic sensitivities
• To reinforce the bolstering effect of vibrant trade, economic links and developmental ties in sustaining a stable bilateral relationship;
• To breathe more substance into the existing framework of the declared Sino-Indian strategic partnership.

THE WAY THAT LIES AHEAD

This journey of facilitating change and strengthening the relationship needs to be steered by mastering the four keys of “leading, transmitting, shaping and integrating” – the basics of enhancing trust and to instil confidence amongst one – another.

“Leading” pertains to reaching consensus and guide the direction of the development of bilateral relations under the guidance of leaders. “Transmitting” means to transmit the leaders’ consensus to all levels as they get translated into tangible cooperation and outcomes. “Shaping” refers to go beyond the mode of managing differences while accumulating the positive momentum of shaping bilateral relations. “Integrating” at the end concerns strengthening exchanges and cooperation while promoting convergence of interests and achieve common development.

There is no doubt in saying that the levels of engagement between India and China have increased certainly but India, at the same time, requires to move forward with a sophisticated approach to deal with the emerging strategic challenges being emanating from China. Power dynamics often remain at the core of weak reciprocal agreements however this holds no vitality in the context here as, despite the fact that China has become increasingly assertive not only at the regional level but also at the global level, India has not shown any displeasure so far in strongest terms.

In the current circumstances, it is obvious that trade has come to be viewed as an increasingly important facilitator of relations especially in the shadow of lingering political mistrust as issues ranging from the long-running protracted border dispute to China’s close affiliations with Pakistan to India’s cordial allegiance with the US defies the purpose of simplifying the conflict.

The signing of an Agreement on “Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the Border Dispute”, by both India and China is a major stride in moving ahead in terms of reaching a consensus on this major irritant while also joining hands in a promise to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border front. But, at the same, it’s needless to highlight that this requires a careful assessment especially on the intent and declarations of outcomes.

China has always been a hardcore follower of following the tenets of the ‘Monroe Doctrine’. The attempt has always been to deny access to other powers in the region that it perceives as exclusively within its sphere of influence. As the time has come to breathe more substance into the existing framework of strategic partnership it is essential on the part of India to remind Beijing how these stipulated actions have been damaging the interests of other regions especially to the countries in the East and South-East Asia.

In the long term, neither Indian nor Chinese defence strategists can rule out the possibility of a renewed confrontation over the disputed territory (Tibet, Kashmir, Myanmar, or the Indian Ocean ) as China becomes the other alternative unchallenged power and India continues to increase its circumference of influence thus signalling that a Sino-Indian rivalry in southern Asia may well be a dominant feature of future Asian geopolitics of the twenty-first century thus compelling the regional actors to choose sides. The nature of the rivalry will be facilitated by how domestic political and economic developments, as well as internal mechanisms of these two countries, affect their power, their outlooks, and their foreign and security policies on the international platform. On the flip side, it can also be noted that while they are competitors for power and influence in Asia, China and India also share interests in maintaining regional stability as well as exploiting economic opportunities while promoting regional cooperation – all of which could act as indispensable factors in influencing their relationship.

Last but not least, there comes a pressing necessity where one under these idealistic terms of co-operation, unity and oneness must not forget the real question where countries wonder: ‘WHETHER CO-OPERATION AND COMPARATIVE ELEMENTS IN BETWEEN POWERFUL WORLD POWERS COEXIST ?’

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Keshab, Chandra & Ratha, (2014); ‘India-China Bilateral Relations “

Kumar, R. (2007), “Cultural and Economic Relations between India and China”

Nehru, J. (1946), “The Discovery of India”, Oxford University Press; pp 30-42 .

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The South China Sea dispute is based on both maritime as well as territorial claims. The Paracel Islands, the Spratly Islands, Macclesfield Bank and Scarborough Shoal, and the Pratas Islands are the four contested geographic features in the South China Sea, with the Paracel Islands, claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam and the Spratly Islands, claimed in their entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, and in part by the Philippines, Malaysia, and Brunei being the most hotly contested. This maritime dispute has at its roots in Beijing’s contentious ‘nine-dash line’, that was Beijing’s cartographic assertion submitted to the UN in 2009. The controversial line lays claims on the maritime and territorial features that are in compliance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). However, its bully-like actions have led to discord in the region. There have been overlapping claims in the South China Sea with China seeking to become the hegemon in the disputed regional topography.

The South China Sea Arbitration

There are six nations that contest all or parts of the oil and gas rich South China Sea, which has led to a series of confrontations between the Dragon and others over the competing claims.

The Philippines in January 2013 put forth a case against China’s belligerent activities and expansive claims in the SCS. An arbitral tribunal was constituted for the hearing of the case under the UNCLOS and final decision in 2016 was in Philippines’ favour; the resource rights in the South China Sea had to be clarified. China’s contentious nine-dash line became the subject of disapproval and the tribunal ruled against it, clearly stating that China was claiming historic rights to the resources within the jurisdiction of its aforementioned nine-dash but in actuality, these claims were nullified with China becoming a signatory of the UNCLOS in 1996 due to its discordancy with the Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of other coastal states.

The tribunal also ruled that the 200-nautical-mile EEZ entitlements of the Philippines and, by conclusion, the other coastal states in the region, are unfettered by the nine-dash line or any claimed EEZ in the Spratly Islands.

China denounced the decision as “null and void” having “no binding force,” it largely kept to its letter if not its spirit in the first year after the award. The United States and its allies, members of ASEAN and India directly or indirectly pressured Beijing to accept the ruling and comply with the UNCLOS. Another reason could have been China’s disinterest in direct confrontation in the region.

China’s Outright Claims Over the South China Sea

Beijing’s venture into the disputed South China Sea has been a part and parcel of its long-term strategy to establish its hegemony over the near and far regions and expand and deepen its sphere of influence, both overland and in the seas. Recently, the dragon’s firing of medium-range missiles into the SCS and its ever-increasing military exercises is an avowal in order to show its sovereignty over the disputed waters.

Even though its untoward claims have no legal basis, as pointed out by Hague Tribunal, which is by and large ignored and disobeyed by China, does not stop it from emerging as a formidable trouble-fomenting power in the South China Sea. What started in the guise of a cooperative mechanism for engaging with the countries in the periphery of the disputed SCS has turned into brazen bullying by Beijing.

Historically, post one-year anniversary of the UNCLOS tribunal’s ruling, as international attention faded, China started strengthening its claims and encroaching upon the EEZs of the coastal states; deepening the purview of its maritime claims and increasing its military and naval presence apart from objecting to the presence of US navigation and laws of free movement. It was greatly engaged in consolidating its grand and objectionable territorial claims engaging in reclamation of physical geographical features on which lay its belligerent claims. Its militarisation of the region and installations at Mischief Reef through naval and aerial facilities and setting up of artificial islands has been a well-known factor.

Beijing has been an aggressive bully in the region trying to establish rules and laws that favour its grandiose plans. It has always maintained that it has full control over the region and has stakes and claims, as in the case of its assertion on a recent White Paper – “China exercises its national sovereignty to build infrastructure and deploy necessary defensive capabilities on the islands and reefs in the South China Sea.”

Conclusion

Beijing through its deplorable actions has been able to outrightly build a forceful maritime presence in the South China Sea, strengthening its surveillance and intelligence capabilities; its aerial capabilities have also helped it to gain a strong foothold over the region, thus, bringing it closer to the realisation of its broad strategic goals of hegemony of the region, sans any respect for the laws of the sea or the international rules-based order. The other adversaries have also been subdued by China’s overwhelming presence in the region and even, the US credibility, action and capability has been undermined with Chinese sovereign control over the contested territory being somewhat fait accompli. Chinese downright assertions over the South China Sea have antagonised the neighbouring states with the ASEAN being virtually helpless in the face of adversity that Beijing has thrown on to them. Moreover, in the present scenario in a world ravaged by COVID-19, it is difficult to control the bully and prevent it from infringing on the rights of other rightful contenders of the South China Sea resources.

References:

Council on Foreign Relations. (n.d.). Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea. Council on Foreign Relations.

Kumar, A., & Chari, S. (2020, September 6). China creating a flashpoint in South China Sea. Sunday Guardian Live.

Kuok, L. (2019). How China’s actions in the South China Sea undermine the Rule of Law. Global China.

Tsirbas, M. (2016, June 2). What Does the Nine-Dash Line Actually Mean? The Diplomat.

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While it has been regarded as a continuum of economic and developmental prospects for Pakistan, it has also, significantly, given birth to a series of domestic economic and political issues in Pakistan. It is an instrument whereby China seeks to establish its hegemony through the combined use of hard and soft power, relying greatly on its “debt-trap diplomacy”. The debt outcome of the CPEC project is already about $80 billion, with 90% of it to be paid for by Islamabad in the form of the national debt. Even though Islamabad is still presenting a rosy picture of CPEC and its developmental prospects for Pakistan, it is well known that it will not be able to pay China back and will eventually lose its sovereignty and become another linchpin in the Chinese debt trap strategy. Experts and media reports have already been referring to it as a “Trillion Dollar Blunder”.

This mega billion dollar project has turned out to be more of a Non-Performing Asset (NPA) for China than a boon, especially when the world has been badly hit by the pandemic. The CPEC has proven to be more of a bogus project that hardly offers any profits with lagging industrialisation efforts and only a quarter of the decided projects completed over the last five years. With China facing an economic slowdown and depleting dollar reserves, it is itself in desperate need of the USD and is trying to woo foreign investors to its financial markets. With the trade war with the US and the Chinese export market facing an all-time low due to the diplomatic distancing and the Western countries’ ire over China’s role in the spread of Coronavirus pandemic, a big blow has been landed on to the Belt and Road Initiative, especially the CPEC project that is greatly faltering and has turned out to be China’s biggest NPA. With the global supply chains being badly hit, the OBOR Initiative is no longer a marker of China’s long-term vision and magnanimity; rather it is regarded as an investment blunder of colossal scale. The CPEC, which sowed dreams of a developed Pakistan with the most profitable and developed infrastructure has and the region into a hub of trade and commerce has instead turned it into a centre of gargantuan infrastructure with negative profitability and zero utility. The Chinese banks and financial institutions have been shirking away from funding the CPEC, as it is evidently nil on profit, given Pakistan’s inability to repay the Chinese loans. 

There is a huge gap in the announced projects of 2015 and completed projects of 2020, with only 32 of the 122 announced projects seeing the light of the day. The CPEC project is lagging behind as it has been facing many shortcomings like lack of funds, trade asymmetries, domestic issues, bad loans for China which does not want to fund the CPEC projects and opposition from Baloch rebels and local who will be directly impacted by this rollout. Large energy projects have been shelved as this NPA faces major bottlenecks due to unsustainable debt levels. China is reluctant to provide assistance as the venture does not provide any returns and is a fund drain. Moreover, Pakistan’s long standing challenges have been aggravated by the CPEC; it entails economic, environmental, social and political costs the state which faces an exacerbated energy deficit, creating a greater dependence for fossil fuels that are harming the environment as well. The CPEC was roped in on its premise of turning Pakistan into a higher-value manufacturing hub, however, what is seen at present is that the huge majority of special economic zones (SEZs) are empty, and the information and communication technology (ICT) projects that were to provide the backbone have been halted and limited. 

Conclusion

Thus, the CPEC is a gamble for China and Pakistan, contrary to their narrative of completing the CPEC at all means. It has already increased Pakistan’s current account deficit and China does not want to invest more where there is no way of recouping their investment and the Return of Investment (RoI) rate shows a gloomy picture. For the Dragon, given the calamitous economic situation Pakistan is in, even the chances of recovery of principal amounts spent by the Chinese financial institutions is a far-fetched dream and thus, the “iron-brotherhood” may be in a jeopardy. The Chinese funds kept Pakistan afloat and prevented it from sinking into the economic doom, however with the funds getting halted and dried up, CPEC faces cost escalations being beneficial for none. Rather than an asset, it has become a liability and has been added to the list of China’s NPA.

References: 

Chinese banks’ reluctance towards CPEC hint towards their funding gap. (2020, August 27). Wion .

Afzal, M. (2020). “At all costs”: How Pakistan and China control the narrative on the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor. Brookings.

Business Standard . (2018, April 17). Pak’s current account deficit rises due to CPEC: ADB report. Business Standard.

Hillman, J. E., McCalpin, M., & Brock, K. (2020). The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor at Five. CSIS.

The EurAsian Times. (2020, July 4). CPEC Project A ‘Trillion-Dollar Blunder’, Pakistan Calls It ‘Outstanding Initiative’. The EurAsian Times.

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The strategic importance of the Korean Peninsula has enacted as the bridge between Asia mainland and Japan. It was believed that dominance over the Korean Peninsula signified influence over East Asia. It was during 1876 that diplomatic ties between both the countries were established. The Sino- Japanese War fought during 1894- 1895 must be analyzed from the perspective of Japanese imperialism or ‘Empire of the East’ countering the notion of western imperialism. However, the latter is not the only form of imperialism. Clearly, the aim of the Japanese government was to exercise political and economic control. Public opinion supported this action and clearly believed that Japan should play a pivotal role in helping Korea to free itself from the clutches of China. On the other hand, Qing China during the 1880s espoused the necessity to dominate over Korea. It is indeed true that nationalism and the trajectory of civilization have an intimate relationship as can be clearly seen by the case of Japan. Both the countries emphasized on their narratives to point out the righteousness in their actions (Sook, 2011, p: 39-74). Clearly, the Japanese government had manipulated the public opinion towards its aggressive foreign policy. Japan engaged in the discourse of civilization or bunmei kaika to present itself as a progressive nation which saw the light of Westernization (Darua, 2001, p: 99- 130). This altering contour emerged during the reign of the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912).  However, Russia’s emergence as a threat to Japan pushed the latter to be protective about Korea which led to the Russo-Japan War in 1905. 

Colonization of Korea (1905- 1945): Etched in Korea’s Collective Memory

Russia’s defeat was the stepping stone for Japan as Korea was formally annexed and become a part of the Japanese empire in 1905. Korea remained colonized till 1945 after which she was freed from Japan’s clutches with the latter’s defeat in the Pacific War. It was in 1912 that the Japanese Governor-General propagated laws that allowed the Japanese people to have ownership of land in Korea. A resettlement program was introduced by the government wherein many Japanese families settled in Korea before the end of the First World War. A large scale displacement took place. Additionally, 724,777 Korean workers had been sent to mainland Japan and Sakhalin as labourers in industries for mining, shipbuilding and construction. The Koreans were treated as second-class citizens and the Japanese government attempted to erase their culture by drawing up policies that would lead them to speak in the language of the colonizers. It was believed that Korean history and geography books were burned down by a nationwide search as well as confiscation of books of its independence and biographies of its national heroes was conducted by the government.

Not only that, gender-based violence on the Korean women was emerging as a disturbing issue during the Second World War. 20,000 Korean and Asian women were trafficked in military brothels to serve as ‘comfort women’ to the Japanese soldiers during the Asia-Pacific war. Comfort stations had been established in Indonesia, Indochina, Thailand, Okinawa, Korea and Taiwan. The women were treated as forced sexual slaves and must be analyzed from the perspective of gender-based violence. On the other hand, Japan had been the signatory of the International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children of 1921, yet Korea and Taiwan did not come under its purview. (Min, 2003, p: 938-957) The terminology of jugun inafu or comfort women was coined by the Japanese Government officials to cloak the reality of sexual slavery. Women who rebelled were brutally beaten up, raped and tortured.  It took 20 years before the former Korean President, Park Chung- Hee had agreed to normalize ties with Japan as collective memory etched on to its horrifying history.

Changing Contour of Republic of Korea and Japan Ties

The relations between South Korea and Japan can be examined from the point of view of a former suzerain state and colonizer since the 19^th century. Japan had argued that by the treaty of 1965 with South Korea, the former has provided compensation of $9.5 million for its sexual slavery as well as apologized in 1993. It was in 1952 that the first territorial dispute emerged between South Korea and Japan. Although Tokyo came under the jurisdiction of Korea, it had been administered by the latter for 41 years.  Kim Young- Sum’s Government declared the construction of a wharf facility in 1996 which was protested by the Hashimoto Government of Japan. However, on the face of North- Korean Teapeo- Dong Missile Crisis, Republic of Korea, President Kim and Japanese Prime Minister, Obuchi in 1998 signed the Joint Declaration and Action for a New Korea- Japan partnership in the 21st century. It was in 2015 that the former Foreign Minister of Japan, Fumio Kishida offered a formal apology and the Japanese Government stated that it would establish a Reconciliation and Healing Center which would care for the victims of sexual violence.  As Korea was in the process of democratization, civic organizations such as the Association of War Victims and Bereaved Families of Korean’s and Citizens Coalition for Economic Justice insisted that their Government must bring out a resolution to the colonial problems faced in South Korea. However, it cannot be denied that Japan was heralded as an economic partner. The post- Cold War period witnessed shifts in Korea- Japan relationship as security cooperation between USSR, North Korea, China and on the other hand, Japan, Republic of Korea and the USA broke down. Nonetheless, it cannot be forgotten that Japan and South Korea have espoused an anti-community narrative which is significant in their alliance as constructivism argues. These countries distinguish themselves from the other or Communism in this regard which is rooted in the perception of the self and other. The alliance is established when North Korea emerges as a common threat that leads them to shift from friction. It is imperative that the norms or a common ground must be shared for cooperation to flourish. Adding to that, the alliance did not last very long when in 2010 South Korea recalled the ambassador to Tokyo to protest against the approval of the Japanese Government of middle school textbooks written by the Society for Making New History Books, a Right- Wing intellectual group that aimed to conceal the atrocities of Japan’s wartime history. (Cho, 2008, p: 2-117) It clearly glorified Japanese militarism and fueled anti- Japanese sentiment in Korean public opinion. South Korean domestic policies have the impact of post-colonial history. The General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) had been signed in 2016 which allowed Seoul and Japan to exchange information on North Korean missile which was supposed to expire in November. Ties experienced a downward spiral after the Supreme Court of South Korea in 2018 had ordered Japanese Firms to pay reparation for mobilizing Korean men and women as forced labours. Japan responded in July by removing South Korea from its list of trading partners as well as curbing exports namely fluorinated polyamides, photerists and hydrogen fluoride which are pivotal to the former’s semiconductor industry. The decision of not renewing the GSOMIA was upheld by Moon Jae’s government. The trade war that had been declared by both the countries has been perceived as a warning sign for USA and fear looms of the trilateral alliance breaking down.  

Portrayal of Japanese Media House Towards the Issue of Comfort Women

Journalism plays a pivotal role in bringing the truth to the public, yet this is determined by the coverage of the issue and if its portrayal is influenced by Government representation. ‘Sorrowful Homecoming’ was a Documentary which was released by the Korea Center of Investigative Journalism in 2016 that contained interviews of Korean women who were treated as sex slaves. This documentary had been created to raise awareness of the brutality done by the Japanese Imperial Army on Korean women and reconstruct the past human abuses. This has played an important role in building the collective memory of South Korea.  (Runquist, 2020, p: 2-17) On the other hand, Hirayasu Minzo, the Executive Editor of the Japan Times had criticized Reuters for not taking into account Japan’s viewpoint of colonization and refused to call comfort women as victims neither did he view Japan’s annexation of Korea as brutal.  Clearly, the Japan Times had refused to portray the horrifying Human Rights Violations that had occurred under the Meji regime in fear that it would be perceived as anti- Japanese by Shinzo Abe’s Government as it needed revenues from companies to survive and therefore had utilized the usage of such terminology. Although, Minzo had denied that his stance had altered due to external pressure, the fear of Abe’s Government ceasing the functioning of the paper could be viewed as one of the motives behind such an action. Indeed, the banner was, “All the news without fear or favor” has proved to be a farce as the truth has been denied. This has played a pivotal role in accentuating differences between the two countries. 

USA’s Role in South Korea-Japan Ties

The USA had perceived South Korea as its bulwark against Communism during the Cold War era. Yet, it cannot be denied that she built the foundation for democracy and it was the path that the Republic of Korea walked on. It was in 1953 that the Mutual Defense Treaty between the USA and the ROK was signed when Korean War had come to an end. The fervour to renew this alliance was pushed by George Bush’s Government during the 2000s. The USA, Japan and the Republic of Korea have been entangled in trilateral cooperation as North Korea’s advancement of nuclear missiles and China’s growing aggressiveness have led to the development of this alliance as these three countries share the standpoint of security. Nevertheless, this alliance has been embedded in the USA’s foreign policy. Nonetheless, an agreement between the Korean President, Park Geun- Hye and Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe was reached on 28^th December 2015 which could not have been possible without the pivotal role played by Obama’s administration which focused on the policy of “Rebalance to Asia”.

Conclusion

It is imperative for the Trump administration to sustain the trilateral cooperation as the ties between The ROK and Japan experience significant shifts due to the disturbing colonial past and atrocities embedded in the history of South Korea. As China’s aggressiveness becomes a warning sign for the USA as the ever so globalized world witnesses a re-emerging dawning Cold War era, the alliance can become the foundation for resistance if the economic partnership is facilitated. However, it must be kept in mind that the relationship of the Republic of Korea with Japan has been defined by the history of colonialism and collective memory.

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SUICIDE PREVALENCE IN JAPAN 

Sign board at the entrance of Aokigahara Forest (Suicide Forest) that beg suicidal visitors to think about their loved ones and to seek help if they’re considering taking their life in the forest

For years, the Japanese had failed to identify depression and problems of the mind as legitimate problems and ignored them persistently. It is only in recent times, perhaps owing to a wider worldview provided by the 21st-century global world, that these problems which are as common in Japan as any other part of the world have come to light.

Japan ranks among the top countries in terms of a number of deaths by suicide. In 2019, the death of approximately 20.1 thousand people was recorded by suicide, and although the figure has significantly reduced from the previous years, it’s still quite high. In fact, suicides have been such an accepted fact in Japanese history that a forest called the Aokigahara Forest is deemed as a ‘suicide forest’ where people go to kill themselves, mostly by hanging themselves to the trees of the forest.

The large scale of suicides that Japan witnesses every year, can perhaps be attributed to some distinct factors, although there is bound to be exceptions, given the very personal nature of such tragedies.

❖ Cultural and Historical practices: For the longest time, Japanese culture has identified suicide as not a sin (unlike Christianity) but rather as a way of taking responsibility for one’s actions. Far from being deemed as tragic or feeling the need to reduce its rates, the Japanese often interpreted suicide as honourable. This notion was perhaps the by-product of the ‘seppuku’ practices followed in the Samurai tradition, according to which the Samurai’s ritual suicides were honourable. In recent times, these ideas that romanticize suicide has been discarded to an extent, and a greater emphasis on mental health has acquired more importance. 

❖ Financial Reasons: Statistics suggest that young men between the age of 22-40 are most commonly the victims of suicide and this is attributed to the financial problems brought about by unemployment and employment on the basis of short term contracts.

❖ Isolating technology: Japan’s culture of not complaining further increases the troubles for individuals. Not being able to express one’s feelings adequately, and further, the introduction of newer technologies, isolate people to an extent that they might become helpless.

❖ Karoshi which means ‘death from overwork’ is one of the most prominent causes of suicide in Japan. The term was invented in the 1970s as a result of a number of deaths that had been brought about by work-related stresses and pressures. However, it still remains quite persistent in contemporary times. Numerous studies on work culture have brought into light the collectivist and hierarchical nature of Japanese society, unlike the western societies which are individualistic and non-hierarchical. What this means for Japanese society is that in order to move up the hierarchy in their work status Japanese people often tend to overwork themselves so as to please their bosses and maintain group harmony.

THE ROLE OF YAKUZA IN JAPAN

Men donning Yakuza style tattoos | Credit: Jorge/Wikimedia Commons

The avenue of organized crime in Japan has been dominated by the Yakuza, known as bōryokudan or gokudō, for years. These Yakuza groups are primarily mafia-like criminal organizations whose existence is deeply entrenched in Japanese history. These groups were at their glory in the 1960s with gang membership of about 184, 000 but in the 21st century, it has been reduced to about 80,000 members. The Yakuza comprises of several gangs which are affiliated to about 20 conglomerate gangs, of which the Yamaguchi-Gumi is the largest.

Living up to its name of a criminal organisation, the Yakuza engage in a number of shady activities including extortion, blackmail, smuggling, prostitution, drug trafficking, gambling, loan sharking, day- labour contracting, and other rackets. But the control of the Yakuza over Japan stretches across different fields, even unlikely ones such as entertainment industries, restaurants and bars and taxi companies, and other major factories and businesses. Unsurprisingly, the Yakuza are also involved in international crimes.

One of the major activities that the Yakuza are known to engage in is Drug trafficking especially of methamphetamine, although such activities are only condoned by some gangs and others such as the Yamaguchi-Gumi strictly disapprove of such actions. Perhaps even further down the moral scale than drug trafficking, the Yakuza are infamous for engaging in human trafficking in extensive scales. Often young girls from small villages are persuaded to come to big cities by the Yakuza, who promise them good jobs and respectable positions in the society, but in reality, forcing them to become sex workers after they arrive. They also follow a practice of extortion specific to Japan, known as ‘sōkaiya’ which basically means a protection racket.

However, the Yakuza’s relationship with Japanese society is more complex than it might seem to appear in the first glance. While some natives are completely repulsed by the idea of the Yakuzas, others perceive it as a form of a necessary evil. The possible reason for this may be the Yakuza’a existence in Japanese society for hundreds of years and also some philanthropic deeds that the Yakuza has undertaken for the people of their nation. For instance, during the Kobe Earthquake of 1955 and the Tsunami in 2011, the gangs took up the task of delivering and distributing essential supplies to victims. While the Yakuza has certainly evolved into a relatively more crime-free group compared to it’s earlier manifestations, the nature of the group and its relationship with Japanese society still remains complicated, especially the one between the police and the Yakuza, both of which, much suspect work hand in hand.

THE NIGHTLIFE IN JAPAN – PROSTITUTION RINGS

Prostitution (baishun, i.e, selling spring) declared illegal by the Japanese government is present in Japan, on an extensive scale. Their existence which is in direct contradiction to the law, is perhaps possible by their affiliation and control by the Yakuza and also perhaps due to their covert means of operating. The Japanese government in the second half of the 20th century had banned prostitution, but this ban catered to only a narrow definition, i.e, intercourse in exchange of payment, therefore living ample space for functioning of oral copulation, erotic massages, etc, which are therefore entirely legal. This, these activities along and even intercourse, is a largely occurring event in the nightlife of Japan. Tokyo, for example, is believed to have one of the largest red-light districts in the world. Pink salons that specialize in oral pleasure are common and so are some shady ‘spa’ businesses which carry out such activities, under an innocent pretext.

Photograph of girls working in pleasure house “Sakuraya” in port town of Yokohama

Most of the prostitutes are trafficked slaves, and what’s even more sickening is the child prostitution prevalent in Japan. The legal age of consent for a girl in Japan is 13, so most underage sex is protected by law, and often conveniently blame the girls, as inviting it upon themselves. The child prostitution racket in Japan, often called the JK Trade is perhaps embedded in the Japanese culture of sexualizing young girls, which is evident in the craze over maid cafes, and the way young girl’s bodies are represented in anime and manga, all of which are a very prominent part of Japanese Culture.

CONCLUSION

Therefore, it may well be understood that Japanese culture, is not as bright and cheery as it may seem at first glance. It is an undeniable fact that therefore, that there is another side to the coin, i.e, while Japanese culture is rightful to boast about its many vibrant festivals and whatnot, the dark side of Japan primarily represented by the existence of Yakuza and its role in Japanese society, Suicide prevalence in Japan and prostitution rings along with other issues such as poor economy, sub-standard educational and bureaucratic system and high rising prices, are ever-present.

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De-Facto Division

In the earlier 20^th century japan was a big imperial power, conquering all the territories surrounding its island. In 1910, japan deposed the king of Korea and occupied the kingdom of Korea. They ruled as a very oppressive regime for over 35 years and tried to eradicate the complete culture of Korea. In 1939, World War 2 began and japan was a very crucial part of the war. It continued for about 6 years when finally in 1945, USA bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki, thus bringing it to an end, with Japan losing the war. Soon after this, the Korean peninsula was taken over by the USA and USSR troops. The USSR army entered from the north and USA troops from the south and decided that they will stop at 38^th degree parallel. This is the initial reason for the division of the Korean peninsula, known as de facto division. Both the armies divided the country into north and south but planned that they will reunite this area after 5 years. 

Contrasting Political Ideologies

The North part of Korea became a communist state under the communist influence of USSR whereas the South part of Korea was becoming a pro-western country, and though the people were against the USA yet the leaders were trying to instil a sense of pro-western culture in this area. Till 1948, both the areas of Korea were ruled by the occupying army of USSR and USA. After that elections took place in the south regime and though it was alleged that they weren’t fair and were ricked, a leader named Syngman Rhee came to power who was pro-USA. While in the north, no elections happened and the USSR made Kim II sung the president as he was a strong abider of the communist ideology.

Both these leaders came into power almost at the same time and were totally against each other as they didn’t believe in each other’s political ideologies. Syngman Rhee was an anti-communist whereas Kim Sung was against the pro – USA ideology. Both the leaders wanted the country to unite but with their own respective government as the leading government. This difference in the political ideologies of the two nations is considered to be the most important reason for the Korean conflicts. Till date, North Korea is a communist state whereas South Korea from 1987 is a democratic state.

The War of 1950-1953

From 1948 onwards Small border clashes and conflicts had begun in between both these countries resulting in fire and bombing at certain places. By 1950, North Korea with its strong military was ready for a war against the South. On June 25, 1950, they invaded the south so as to unify the Korean peninsula. As soon as this invasion began, the UN passed a resolution to help South Korea; this was the first time that United Nations (UN) intervened militarily anywhere in the world. The USSR though a permanent member of the Security Council could have used the veto to ensure that the resolution cannot be passed, but they didn’t as they were boycotting the UN at that time.

The northern army attacked the southern region and overran almost the entire peninsula up to Busan. Soon after this, in September 1950 there was an outflanking manoeuvre by the US troops which was led by Gen Douglas MacArthur, thus resulting in amphibious landings at Incheon and reoccupying Seoul. The UN forces even reached the Yalu River thus breaking the de facto division agreement of stopping of armies at 38^th degree parallel.      

Soon after this china entered the war on October 1950 and pushed the UN forces back and even captured back Seoul by January 7, 1951. Even USSR supported china by sending in air force armies and helping them gain a wider region. Now the fight wasn’t just between the south and north armies but between the Chinese army and the UN troops.                                    

In April 1951, the UN army once again pushed back the Chinese forces and recaptured Seoul. After this, for the next two years there was a stalemate around the 38^th degree parallel as neither the Chinese nor the UN forces had the resources to push back and start a war, and so the fight continued around this region only.                                                                                  

This war had a lot of war crimes from both the sides, thus causing the death of around 2.5 million civilians and 1 million military deaths.  Though this war was such a drastic war yet there were no major changes in the geographical, political and administrative areas of the states, hence it is often known as the forgotten war.

The Armistice 

On June 27, 1953 an armistice was signed between both the regions, thus ceasing all the violence and bloodshed. India played a very important role in these negotiations; general Thimayya of India played a crucial role in the repatriations of prisoners of war.

After this both the armies moved 2 kilometers back, thus creating a 4 km exclusion zone at the border known as the demilitarized zone (DMZ). Though both the armies cannot officially send their troops there yet the demilitarized zone has heavy military around it and the area is full of land mines and barbed wires. This wasn’t a peace treaty but was a temporary agreement for controlling the situation until any final decision was made. 

Sunshine Policy 

The end of the war brought an economic crisis in both the states, while South Korea was able to deal with the losses by taking proper actions, North Korea failed. In South Korea, an economic boom and democratic revolution happened in 1987 leading to a path towards a developing country. Whereas in North Korea, no such action was taken and till date, it is considered to be a very backward state with its economy in a dire state and almost no trade with other countries.                   

In December 1991, both the states made an agreement on reconciliation, pledging peace and cultural and economic exchanges. Soon after this in 1998, the South Korean president announced a sunshine policy towards North Korea. It basically had three principles:

1. No armed provocation by the North will be tolerated.
2. The South will not attempt to absorb the North in any way.
3. The South actively seeks cooperation and promotes reconciliation.

This policy was established in pursuit of more peaceful relationships with North Korea. It was actively supported by the other leaders too, but in 2010 it was formally abandoned thus creating a more hostile relationship between the two states. After this, both the states were at a cold war, which created a lot of tension at the border; at times it was escalated to such a high level that led to firing and even bombing in certain regions. This situation prevailed till 2018. 

2018: A year of Relief 

From 2017 onwards the relationship between both the nations started thriving, with the South Korean president promising the people that he will bring back the sunshine policy. In 2018, Kim Jong Un, the North Korean leader proposed to send in a delegation to the winter Olympics which were to be held in South Korea; both the states marched together in the opening ceremony of the winter Olympics. Soon after this on 1 April, the South Korean k-pop artists performed in North Korea for the first time after 2005, this event was attended by Kim Jong and his wife. Following this, on April 27 summit took place between Moon and Kim in the South Korean zone of the Joint Security Area. This summit ended with both the nations vowing to officially end the Korean War within a year. The two countries signed the Panmunjom Declaration for Peace, Prosperity and Unification of the Korean Peninsula, which was submitted to the United Nations general assembly on September 6, 2018.This declaration was to end the Korean conflicts and to begin a new era of national reconciliation, peace, reunification and prosperity and improvements to inter-Korean communication and relations. 

2019-20: A Period of Diplomacy 

On 30 June 2019, Kim and Moon met again in the DMZ, joined by US President Trump who initiated the meeting. Meanwhile, The US and South Korea took part in joint military drills in August, which was later criticized by the north. Despite all these small disagreements, Kim and Moon continued to have a close and respectful relationship.                            

But on 9 June 2020, North Korea began breaking of all of its communication lines with South Korea, which substantially diminished the agreements which were made in 2018. On June 16, the North Korean government threatened the South to send back the troops that had been withdrawn from the border. Later that day, the North Korean government bombed a joint office in Kaesong causing a lot of damage. On June 21, South Korea urged North Korea to not send propaganda leaflets across the border. The request followed the North’s statement that it was ready to send 12 million leaflets, which could potentially become the largest psychological campaign against South Korea. The reason behind this arbitrary whim is still not known, but it has once again wrecked the relationship of both the states.

Conclusion

The Korean conflict, which is said to be the longest-running conflict of the modern age, highlights the diplomatic and sensitive relationship that two nations of the Korean peninsula share. The conflict which began as disapproval of each other’s political ideology, with the main aim to unite the nation has somewhere lost its essence of uniting the nation. The never-ending cold wars between the two nations have impeded the peace process. The Panmunjom Declaration for Peace, Prosperity and Unification of the Korean Peninsula signed in 2018, was considered to be the end of the longest war but the diplomacy shown by North Korea in 2019-20 has tampered that agreement too. Both the nations have suffered a lot due to this internal conflict and it’s time that they ponder upon the importance of ending this war, and co-existing peacefully without harming each other. 

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KYOTO – THE CULTURAL CENTRE

While the rich culture of Japan is prevalent throughout the entire nation, the city of Kyoto in the southwest of the country is regarded as the cultural centre, by the Japanese and foreigners alike, perhaps owing to its historical roots. Kyoto was the capital of the country until the latter half of the 19^th century, and therefore people often perceive it as the birthplace of the Japanese culture. Home to about 2000 temples and shrines along with imperial palaces, and other ancient buildings, it was within this city that several distinct cultural institutions of Japan, like, tea ceremony (cha-no-yu) and flower arranging (ikebana), the theatrical arts of Noh, Kabuki and traditional dance, were initiated and spread to other parts of the country. Kyoto also has housed masterpieces of calligraphy, sculpting, painting and architecture. The population in Kyoto still remains involved in such activities, creating masterpieces that are deemed as national treasures, conducting tea ceremonies, and having an active theatrical life with annual processions by Noh performers, etc. The three festivals that the citizens celebrate in great grandeur and pride are Aoi in May, Gion in July and Jidai in October.

Aoi Festival

Gion Festival

Jidai Festival

The Japanese population along with the whole world, has embraced the culture of Kyoto, which can be implied by the recent popularity of the phrase, “Sekai no Kyoto” (The World’s Kyoto). The popular tourist destinations like the many number of Shrines and temples (Fushimi Inari Shrine, Gingaku – Ji Temple, Kinkaku – Ji temple, etc ), the Arashiyama Bamboo grove, and others such as Gion and Pont-cho street attract tourists from all over the world, and even the native Japanese who try to go to the city atleast once in their lives.

RELIGION – Buddhism and Shintoism

Japan has seen the growth of two major religions, i.e, Buddhism which was brought about by foreign forces and the native religion of Shintoism, both of which have peacefully co-existed. However, the  division between followers of Buddhism and Shintoism is far from watertight, as most often, those Japanese who follow Buddhism, sometimes also declare themselves as followers of Shinto. Therefore, any claims of the population being divided solely into Buddhists and Shintos do not hold.

Shintoism

Tori Gate

Fushimi Inari-taisha

Shinto, i.e, the way of the Gods (Kami) is the oldest religion in Japan and possibly the most followed, as evidence suggests that about 80% of the Japanese identify themselves as followers of Shinto. There are no historical evidences that suggest the identity of the founder of the religion, and a lack of sacred texts and any sort of formalized teachings, indicate the fact that unlike Buddhism, it’s not an organized religion. The cornerstone of Shintoism is the belief in Kami, i.e, the spiritual elements of nature that exist in waterways, trees, mountains, and geographical regions.  The only foundation of the religion in conclusion is therefore, reverence of peace and harmony, respect for all elements of nature and the belief that being in nature means a closer access to Kami.

How has Buddhism influenced Japanese culture?

The Great Buddha (Daibutsu) at Kōtoku-in, Kamakura, in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan

Buddhism which officially came to Japan around 525 BC, has been able to acquire a large following in the country, with about 90 million of the population identifying themselves as Buddhists. While the religion faced a certain conflict between pro-Buddhist and anti-Buddhism factions, it was successful in establishing its foundations in Japan and subsequently changed the political structure, technological fields and brought in a myriad of sophisticated cultural practices like dance, music, a new writing system and also Buddhist art, that have undoubtedly had a greater impact on the Japanese culture as a whole.

‘Matsuri’ – THE CULTURAL FESTIVALS OF JAPAN

A very important and lively aspect of Japanese culture, is the many number of ‘matsuri’ or the cultural festivals, which bring in cheerful spirits for the native population, who often enjoy the festivities wearing colourful and mostly, traditional clothes and getting involved in the activities the festivals are known for. Research suggests that Japan witnesses as many as 200-300 festivals in a year, all of which are big, fun and crowded events, and are deeply entrenched within the Japanese Culture.

These festivals which occur over the course of a year, differ greatly in terms of the season in which they occur.

SUMMER: The festivals in summer are known worldwide for their use of fireworks or what the Japanese call, Hanabi. These fireworks light up the sky in bright colours and the people often dressed in their Yukatas and Kimonos,  gather in large numbers to watch the show.

Summer Fireworks in Fukuoka

SPRING: In Spring, the Cherry blossoms or Sakura trees turn pink which in itself is a site of majestic beauty. The spring festivals are centered around these trees, where people from different regions come and enjoy activities under the cherry blossoms either in a park, a castle, etc. The Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival is perhaps one of the most famous of such festivals that are conducted in Japan.

Cherry Blossom Festival

Tokyo during spring

WINTER AND FALL: Besides Summer and Spring, cultural festivals of unique natures are also practiced in Winters and Fall. In winter, for instance, the Sapporo Snow Festival and Nozawa festival attract thousands of visitors and so does the Fujiwara Autumn Festival in fall.

Nozawa Fire Festival

The festivals, therefore, are of varied nature, some being calm and peaceful, where people visit shrines and temples, while others are lively events for the Japanese to enjoy with their loved ones.

What role have ANIME and MANGA played in Japanese culture?  

Anime, as the name suggests, is Japanese animation which is either hand-drawn or computer-animated. The diverse fan base of Anime, which is worldwide,is perhaps because of it’s very distinct characteristics that distinguish it from animation produced in any other parts of the world. Manga, on the other hand, are more like Japanese comics or Graphic novels which are read from right to left, while western comics can only be read left to right. Often, those mangas which are able to acquire a large fan base, like Naruto, One Piece, Dragon Ball, Haikyu, etc, are converted into anime. Both Anime and Manga, over the years have become a very crucial aspect of Japanese culture.                                            

Still from Grave of the Fireflies (1980)

Manga Comic

The unconventionality associated with anime and manga, is perhaps a contributor to it’s popularity among adults, and not just kids. These stories that are available in all genres like action, romance, slice of life, rom-com, supernatural, horror, etc, break the notion that anime is meant only for kids. The fan base remain hooked on each episode or chapter, due to the unpredictability of what might happen next.

In Japan, anime and Manga, has become a way of life for ‘Otakus’ (which however is an offensive word for the Japanese) a term used for those hardcore fans of these elements, to the extent that they give up their social lives and withdraw into their homes watching anime and playing video games. The emotional attachment to these forms of entertainment becomes evident when numerous instances of funerals held for anime characters come into light. But anime in Japan is not only limited to the private sphere. It’s presence is abundant everywhere, on trains, buses, advertisements, etc. Moreover, anime and manga also provide a deep insight into Japanese culture, in both covert and overt ways. Most animes have episodes dedicated to the cultural festivals, fireworks, cherry blossoms, otaku culture, Japanese way of living, tea ceremonies and so on. The town of Akihabara near Tokyo, is believed to be the Anime centre, the streets of which are lined with numerous anime shops selling anime merchandise of various kinds. There are also many themed cafes like maid and butler cafes, which attract a lot of tourists. Even outside Akihabara, it is not uncommon to find many huge or life-size statues that give tribute to anime characters and their creators. Anime themed parks, which are a sight of awe for tourists as well as the natives are also abundant in Japan, the most famous of them being the Naruto theme park, Attack on Titans theme park, etc. Often, streets of Japan are also lined with cosplayers, impersonating characters from famous animes. In fact, cosplaying is also an important part of Japanese culture, which has immense importance, as evident by the numerous cosplay competitions held throughout the nation. Anime conventions are also likely events in Japan which are attended by Anime fans from Japan and all over the world.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE, CUISINE AND ATTIRE

Traditional Japanese Architecture is attributed to a distinct aesthetic, that can be attributed to some unique characteristics used in the making of these homes. The dominant feature of traditional Japanese homes is wood, that is preferred in the making of the house over other materials such as stone, perhaps owing to the unpredictability brought about by earthquakes. Wood is respected by the Japanese to the extent that the wood in homes remain in their natural forms and is not concealed by paint. The doors in these houses are fusuma, or sliding doors while the windows are movable screens (shoji). The floors in Japanese houses are covered with tatami mats, made with straw, that along with the wood provides a distinct smell to the traditional Japanese houses. Outside the houses, are what may be called verandahs, which are a wooden extension to the house, which are often elevated from the ground, sometimes covered with shutters.

Japanese cuisine basically comprises of regional and traditional foods, and primarily focuses on combining steamed rice (gohan) which is their staple with one or more main and side dishes and miso soup or pickles. While this typically describes the traditional meal, there are also many other variants of food that the Japanese are known for like, Sushi, Ramen, tempura, Curry rice, Yakitori, etc.

Sushi

The traditional attires of Japanese men and women, like all other aspects of culture, are also varied. The Japanese Kimono is the most iconic and famous traditional piece of clothing in Japan. Yukata is another traditional attire, which is mainly dorned during summer, due to the breezy material, unlike Kimono which are reserved for more fancy and formal occasions. Other pieces of traditional Japanese clothing include Haori, Jinbei, Hakama, etc.

Traditional Japanese Clothing

Japanese women donning Kimono

INDIA AND JAPAN – THE CULTURAL TIES

India and Japan have continued to maintain strong cultural ties, ever since the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, from India. The countries have often engaged in mutual cultural exchanges and also follow some similar cultural traditions and ideas along with Buddhism, like the commitment to Democracy, pluralism, open societies, tolerance, etc. The Namaste India Festival which is held in Tokyo every year is aimed at realizing the agreement between the two countries about holding cultural festivals, on 2007, which marked the 50^th anniversary of the Indo-Japan cultural agreement. These festivals aim at bringing an insight of each country’s culture, that includes food, music, souvenirs, clothes, etc, to the other.

PM Narendra Modi with PM Shinzo Abe performing Ganga Arti in Varanasi

CONCLUSION

The above quote by Hector Garcia, in  ‘Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life’ therefore sums up the very dynamic and cheerful  Japanese culture, which has fascinated many souls over the years. Therefore, it wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that the Japanese culture which comes to life in it’s cultural festivals, anime, cuisine, architecture, an unbreakable link with nature and various other quirky things that people associate with Japan have been able to become an object of awe and interest for people all over the world.

“The Japanese are skilled at bringing nature and technology together: not man versus nature, but rather a union of the two.”

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Living Conditions in North Korea

North Korea is a military dictatorship and doesn’t provide enough food for its people. It is considered to be one of the world’s most isolated and poorest country. North Korea’sPresident Kim Jong-un is one of the ruthless dictators and he keeps tight control over the economy. It is mostly unable to meet the needs of its people. North Korea’s economy suffered a devastating downturn in the 1990s when it shrank by nearly a third, and starvation is considered to take the lives of nearly thousands of people. Things have improved but still aren’t great in the country. Since 1948, North Korea has been ruled by the men from the same family. The 25 million people living in the country live under a form of communist rule. Its very difficult to leave the country and people hardly get to visit North Korea. People can’t listen to foreign broadcasts or even watch foreign movies there and whoever does faces harsh punishments. This also means that people there have no idea of outside/world events and they also don’t know what their country is thought of by the outside world. Most North Koreans are extremely poor and can’t even afford things like washing machines, fridges etc. People who try to change the system of the country or try to question the leadership are brutally punished and sometimes killed. North Koreans can’t demand things from their government. Kim Jong-un forces people to cheer for him and people do that because they think that they would get into serious trouble if they didn’t. From the early years, people of North Koreans are taught that their leaders are powerful gods and that they are supposed to worship their leaders. People there don’t have access to the internet. It is available in the country but it is only accessible to the government officials.

Rumours Surrounding Kim Jong Un

The state government has claimed many things to their people about Kim which are completely fallacious. Kim once stated that he has supernatural bodily functions i.e. he doesn’t urinate or defecate or go to the washroom for any such actions. So far, we have established that North Korea has one of the worst international reputations, but people there are told that their leaders and the country itself are beloved around the world and every country remembers and celebrates their birthdays. The state media has also claimed that Kim started to drive by the age of 3 though, to be honest, what is the need, really. It is also said that younger Kim is a celebrated musical composer and is very famous around the world, which he is but obviously not for the music. 

Relations between North Korea and the United States

North Korea has active nuclear weapons and can possess biological and chemical weapons capabilities. The country has shown illicit behaviour by withdrawing from nuclear weapons treaties. In 2017, North Korea successfully tested its first intercontinental ballistic missile and also conducted thermonuclear weapon test in September 2017. Later, it was discovered that its nuclear activities were more extensive than declared. North Korea posed to be one of the most persistent U.S. foreign policy challenges (Post-Cold War period). Having made advances in nuclear and missile weapons under Kim Jong-un, North Korea has evolved to be a grave security threat to the United States. The United States and North Korea began denuclearization talks in 2018, but those negotiations have been frozen since February 2019. Meanwhile, North Korea simultaneously has continued to develop its nuclear powers. If a power struggle in the family after Kim’s death, implications emerge for U.S. interests, including questions about control of the country’s nuclear arsenal, the potential for a humanitarian crisis, and the possibility of a confrontation with China that could alter the fundamental security of the country.

Power within Family

In April 2020, his disappearance from public view prompted reports that he was gravely ill or had died following heart surgery. The 36-year-old dictator, with obesity and a heavy smoker, is reported to have suffered from various health problems. Kim is believed to have three children under the age of 10 but has no obvious heir. If he dies or becomes incapacitated, it is undetermined who would be the next ruler. His younger sister and his confidante, Kim Yo Jong, is among the most likely to take control. She played a prominent role in summit diplomacy, but analysts wonder if a woman could become the leader.

Covid-19 in North Korea

Leader Kim Jong Un warned top party officials of the “serious consequences” of failing to prevent an outbreak of the new coronavirus in the country. The poverty struck nation, which has a weak and ill-equipped healthcare system, has closed its borders to prevent the spread of the disease into its territory.
Pyongyang, capital of the country has not reported a single case of COVID-19, which has killed and infected citizens of dozens of countries since it emerged in the neighboring country, China. Moreover, there are debates over the survival of North Korea if the pandemic reaches its citizens. Poverty struck, starved with no medical facilities and little to no education, many believe that more than half of the 25 million people living there will die or incapacitated to work or uphold their families leading more to starve and die. The military bans on executing every patient of the virus without thinking of the consequences. Other countries, like South Korea and USA plan on providing medical services to the country.

Conclusion

To sum it up, the living conditions in North Korea are horrible. People are not given any kinds of basic human rights such as freedom of speech and expression. There are no medical services provided and if Covid-19 reaches the country’s borders then a large sum of people will fall to their demise. It is one of the only 9 countries who have nuclear weapons and its cold relations with countries surrounding it and the US, it is a threat to not only itself but the world.

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Who hasn’t heard of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incidents? Atomic bombs were detonated in these Japanese cities by the Allies during World War II in the year 1945. This led to mass destruction in the country. Over a million people were killed and these two bombings remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. 

Japan is renowned for its extraordinarily rapid economic growth in the 20th century, especially in the first several decades after WWII. Currently, the economy of Japan is the third-largest in the world in terms of nominal GDP. Although Japan is deficient in natural resources, it makes up for it by exporting technologically advanced goods and services since it has highly developed manufacturing and service sectors. Significant contributions have been made in the field of science and technology making it a global leader in the automotive and electronic industries. 

What’s most surprising about the economy of Japan is that even after being destroyed, Japan saw a GDP growth of 10% in the initial period after the war. Too good to be true, right?!  Let us dive deeper into the history of Japan’s economy to look at the factors that led to such a miraculous growth.

PRE WAR

Japan was considered a country that was rich in precious metals like gold, silver, and copper. But, by the time it became possible for Japan to extract such minerals, exports for those were banned. Japan enjoyed good trade relations with the Europeans because they were head over heels for Japanese craftsmanship and metalsmithing. It was also during the time trade flourished that Japan set its foot in the sea and prepared its warships. However, Japan went into a period of isolation in the 1600s and put significant regulations on foreign trade in order to eradicate the spread of Christianization. The economic growth was mild and stable during this period. Porcelain exports rose tremendously in the later period as the Chinese porcelain exporters were out of action. By the 19th century, the country began to open up. 

Major economic development included urbanization along with the diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The shipping of commodities increased. Sectors like banking and agricultural production witnessed expansion.  Moreover, Japan actively studied western sciences and techniques during this period with the main focus on geography, medical and physical sciences, art, etc. Economic developments of the prewar period began with the “Rich State and Strong Army“. The government also built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development along with adopting a Western education system and focusing on teaching the students with modern science, mathematics, and technology by hiring Westerners.

In a bid to promote industrialization, the government constructed several factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at half their price. Such was the success of these businesses that the government emerged as a chief promoter of private enterprise, sanctioning a series of pro-business policies. 

POST WAR

After World War II, most of the industries in Japan had suffered greatly. However, the massive economic growth they achieved astonished the entire world. Industrial growth went up from 27.6% in 1946 to 350 % in 1960, with 1951 being the point that initiated recovery.

This happened primarily because of two major factors.

• The economic reforms brought in by the “Ministry of Industry”. The focus was shifted to the production of raw materials such as steel, coal, and cotton. Additionally, in an attempt to strengthen the workforce, Japan enhanced the inclusion and recruitment of female workers along with some other labor regulations.

• The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. With the advent of the war, there was a huge demand for Japanese equipment owing to the logistical problems faced by the Korean military in getting supplies from the US. This was accompanied by an investment drive that laid the foundations for a long period of remarkable economic growth.

Since most of the industries were destroyed in the war, on rebuilding they were able to produce more efficiently. Along with these land reforms and mechanization were introduced that boomed agricultural productivity.

As can be seen from Fig. 1, the average real GDP growth in the 1960s remained to be 10%. This was achieved by focusing on the consumer and structural economy that focused on high quality technologically advanced products for domestic as well as foreign consumption along with improvement in transportation. The growth declined to 5% in the 1970s and continued to decrease significantly in the consecutive decades. After the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble, the economy came to a standstill in the 1990s, which came to be known as the Lost Decade. Real estate and stock markets were greatly inflated which led to stagnation and the country ran into massive budget deficits.

Quantitative easing was used by the Bank of Japan to expand the country’s money supply. However, it failed to induce any growth initially. Later, it began affecting inflationary expectations. In late 2005, the economy finally began its journey on a path of recovery. GDP growth rate that year averaged 2.8%. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption was credited to be the dominant factor of growth in this scenario.

Despite having interest rates touching zero, the quantitative easing strategy did not succeed in stopping price deflation. Thus, in July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended but deflation had still not been eliminated. Nevertheless, the economy was able to turn over a new leaf in 2013 because of a smart strategy adopted by the Bank of Japan. In recent years, Japan has been the top export market for almost 15 trading nations worldwide.

Current Scenario

Japan has been facing a major problem of ageing and declining population. The current population of 126.5 million is predicted to decline to 100 million by 2050. This has severe repercussions for the country. Moreover, being an island country it has suffered significant losses due to tsunamis in terms of life as well as property. In addition to this, the tourism industry has not been able to attract many tourists and hence doesn’t earn as much foreign exchange as it should. Besides, since the country’s terrain is not fit for agriculture, it has to import most agricultural products. Moreover, with the current COVID situation and factories being shut down, the country has crashed into another economic crisis after World War II.

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Current Economic Inequality

While economic growth has certainly been witnessed in the region, the growth has been worryingly unequal. Recently, with the growth of digitalisation and improvements in technology, while productivity has increased, there has been a trend to favour capital over labour. This has contributed to income equality, which is exacerbated by another trend of favouring skilled labour over unskilled labour. Most ASEAN countries are currently stuck in a middle-income trap. 

The data from ASEAN countries is surprising – they all score highly on the Gini Index, which is used to measure economic inequality. Among all ASEAN countries, Thailand scores the worst. According to the Bank of Thailand’s research institute – the Puey Ungphakorn Institute for Economic Research – Thailand’s 36 per cent of corporate equity is held by just 500 people, while they have a population of about 69,625,582 people. The average yearly household income of these people is around US$10,000. But in stark contrast to this meagre amount, the aforementioned 500 reap around 3.1 billion baht (US$102 million) per year in company profits. 

Economic Inequality and Political Instability

Economic inequality can lead to political turmoil and therefore threaten the peace and security of the region. Unmet expectations can lead to a lead to a dissatisfied voters’ base. Such a voters’ base is likely to vote for populist governments or cause civil unrest. Rattana Lao, lead author of a study by the Asia Foundation called Thailand’s Inequality: Myths and Reality of Isan said that “Research has shown that one of the leading indicators that pushed people toward political turmoil and protest is the fact that they are not satisfied with their economic condition and the uneven treatment that they receive.”

A crucial realisation that fails to be accounted for in most discussions surrounding economic inequality is that regional disparities also constitute as a worry. Specifically, when talking about political instability, people from poorer regions rely more on government supports and can have unrealistic expectations from their governments. These people are more likely to be engaged in politics and hence can determine voting outcomes. The dissatisfaction of electors can turn into a series of protests, as witnessed in the case of the Arab Spring. 

Thomas I. Parks, the Country Representative for Thailand at The Asia Foundation writes in regard to the aforementioned report, “The challenge now for Thai leaders is to find the best mix of programs and policies and stick to them. In the coming years, the government must carefully monitor and evaluate the results of its policies and programs, and the lessons learned, and then make adjustments whenever needed.” Regional disparities and the level of income inequality has to dictate policies if governments want to avoid civil unrest. 

Economic Inequality and Hindrance to Trade

Unfortunately, income inequality goes beyond political instability. Persistent-income inequality can significantly impede growth and weaken demand, therefore affecting trade and ASEAN’s goal of economic integration. Believers of trickle-down economics are proven wrong if we look at the experience of ASEAN countries. According to the International Monetary Fund, if the income share of the top 20 per cent increases by 1 per cent, we witness an associated 0.08 percentage point decrease in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in the next 5 years.

There is a clear correlation between economic equality and sustainable economic growth. Policy measures need to strive for equal access to resources and opportunities, otherwise, we may witness some sort of economic growth, but it will only be limited and unsustainable. Economic development, which is what countries should strive for, includes sustainable growth – and it is only possible when there is an overall economic upliftment of everyone in society.

Moreover, ASEAN’s goal of promoting trade in the region is affected when we look at the driving factors of income inequality. Factors that have been identified as contributors include globalisation and warped fiscal policies of governments. For example, Multinational Companies (MNCs) do not pay proper taxes which helps them retain profits but also indirectly takes away crucial funding from government schemes, and therefore this help never reaches the poor. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s Chief Economist, Laurence Boone said: “At the global level, we must ensure that firms pay their fair share of taxes to create value and employ people.” On the one hand, it is impossible to reject globalisation due to the adverse damage it would do to trade, but on the other hand, it is crucial to make sure the benefits of globalisation are reaped by everyone. Similarly, fiscal policies of countries cannot seek to just remove income inequality – they need to be in line with ASEAN’s policies of economic integration (and therefore, globalisation). In these aspects, ASEAN needs to make sure that it’s member countries remain in tune with its agenda, while at the same time make sure that income inequality is eradicated. 

Conclusion

Both the main objectives of ASEAN are put in jeopardy with the context on economic inequality. In fact, having one objective threatened also affects the other – for example, political instability also disincentivizes people to invest and drives down economic growth. Similarly, slow trade and economic growth leads to resentment amongst the people, and therefore political instability. Ultimately a dangerous cycle can form.

Political instability reduces the likelihood of proper collaboration on an effective economic agenda and trade policies. Frequent regime changes and different leaders might essentially make ASEAN’s goal of proper and effective economic integration difficult to achieve. This, in turn, will lead to poor economic policies, followed by low and unsustainable growth fuelling economic inequality. Economic inequality and hindered trade by creating dissatisfaction amongst citizens will again lead to continued political instability and fragmentation.

In order to make sure that officials’ capacity to implement proper trade policies is not undermined, it becomes crucial to recognise the real-life impact of income inequality and understand the disastrous affects it can have on just numbers and figures of growth, but in lifting people’s social class and living standard. ASEAN’s objective of a better region is threatened by the security risks that economic inequality poses. For example, the recent coronavirus pandemic also disproportionately will affect the poor. In situations such as these, economic equality and consequently equitable access to resources (healthcare, information, a steady source of income etc.) becomes a priority. Poverty and economic gaps don’t just make it tougher for people on the lower end to recover, it also makes every situation tougher for a nation to escape from, and therefore also makes it tougher for a regional entity such as ASEAN. 

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