India’s five-year plans (FYPs) highlighted the import substitution policy under India’s inward-looking strategy. This meant that the goods that can be produced domestically should be produced domestically rather than importing from the foreign market. The domestic producers could thus sell their products in the Indian markets without any foreign competition. The main aim here was to boost the economic growth of the nation and achieve self-sufficiency. Such an economy is also known as a closed economy. Up until the 1990s, India chose to remain as a closed economy.

The system of import substitution and import restrictions was implemented with the help of a number of different methodsー through the imposition of a) Tariffs, b) Quotas.

Extremely high tariffs were levied on imported goods making them very expensive for the Indian consumers. This eventually forced them to buy goods that have been made domestically rather than the imported items.

The quota system led to the fixing the maximum limit on the imports made by a domestic consumer. Only a certain amount of very essential items such as raw materials and capital equipment were allowed to be imported and used. That means, if the producers wanted extra materials, they had to fend for themselves.

No doubt that the inward looking strategy brought a rise in the foreign trade sector with the domestic producers gaining exponentially but towards the early 1990s, the Indian law makers realised that there are many loopholes in the current foreign trade policy that they adopted. The main problem was that the domestic producers made no sincere efforts to step up the quality of their products, forcing the Indian consumers to purchase whatever was supplied by them.

In 1962, a review committee was formed to discuss the changes required in the government’s existing foreign trade rules and hence, in 1985, then Finance Minister V.P. Singh announced the EXIM Policy (short for Export-Import Policy) which formulated the export and import policies of the country. Initially, the policy was meant to be followed for a period of three years. Later from 1991, the policies were revised every 5 years in view of the changing international economic context. The EXIM policy came into being to get a better view of the trade situation of the country and to correct trade deficits, if any.

In the year 1991, India received a major setback. The Indian government availed a loan of $7 billion from the IMF (International Monetary Fund) and the World Bank due to its inability to manage the economic condition of the country. In order to avail the loan, these international agencies expected India to liberalise, privatise and globalise its economy. The Indian government thus announced the New Economic Policy (NEP), popularly known as the LPG (Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation) policies. Under the New Economic Policy, quantitative restrictions that were imposed after independence were substantially removed. For example, by the year 2001, import restrictions on manufactured consumer goods and agricultural products were completely eliminated. Similarly, tariffs were removed to a great extent in order to increase the competitiveness of the domestic goods in the foreign markets and to improve the quality of the products.

The first EXIM policy came into effect in 1992 and was effective until 1997. This policy aimed at removing the various protectionist measures that were taken by the Indian government previously. After that, the second EXIM policy started in the same year (1997) and stayed up until 2002. This time the focus was on making India a globally oriented economy through the adoption of a set of schemes such as the Export Promotion Capital Goods Schemes and Advanced License Schemes aimed at increasing investments from abroad. The next EXIM policy emerged after 2 years i.e. in 2004 up to 2009 (major trade decisions were taken under this EXIM policy which is why it is also called the ‘Trade Constitution’), under which newer policies such as Target Plus which focussed on providing incentives to producers and exporters with duty-free credit and Free Trade Zones. Soon after, the fourth EXIM policy came into effect from 2009 till 2014 which brought in new initiatives known as Focus Market scheme and product market scheme to help exporters compete in foreign markets and incentivise the export of those products which have high employment intensity. The fifth EXIM policy came after one gap year and came into effect in 2015 and stayed till 2020. This policy focussed on the export as well as the manufacturing services to improve the ease of doing business to increase India’s exports and thus increase its participation in the global market.

Fig 1. Imports of goods and services (% of GDP) – India | Source: World Bank

Fig 2. Exports of goods and services (% of GDP) – India | Source: World Bank

On March 31, 2020, the Government of India decided to extend the Foreign Trade Policy 2015-2020 for one year in light of the Covid-19 situation. It was to expire on March 31, 2021, but the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) again extended FTP 2015-20 up to September 30, 2021, and it has been operational since.

References:

1. Arora, S. (2019). What are the objectives of Foreign Trade Policy in India? Legodesk. https://legodesk.com/legopedia/foreign-trade-policy-india/

2. India’s International Trade Policy – EXIM Policy. Economics Discussion. https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/international-economics/indias-international-trade-policy-exim-policy/4241

3. Soares, N. (2014). Foreign Trade Policy of India since 1980. Slideshare. https://www.slideshare.net/NikhilSoares/foreign-trade-policy-of-india-since-1980

4. Saluja, N. (2021). Govt extends current foreign trade policy till September. The Economic Times. https://m.economictimes.com/news/economy/foreign-trade/govt-extends-current-foreign-trade-policy-till-september/amp_articleshow/81777971.cms

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News channels these days, instead of conveying accurate information, focus on adopting means to get more viewers and raise their TRPs. In order to do so, they publish or telecast an overwhelmingly larger proportion of negative news items. As studies in the USA and Australia have shown, about 90% of the news is negative, a huge proportion of them being sensationalist reports. Around 74% of the news stories about Australian indigenous health were negative, while a mere 15% of the stories were classified as positive and 11% as neutral. (Stoneham et al, 2014).

Ever wondered why this is so? Studies have proven that humans show what is known as the negativity bias or negativity effect in information processing. This means that negative events or information are more likely to draw our attention. In a study by Kätsyri J. (2016), gaze tracking, recognition memory, cardiac responses, and self-reports were used to track the attention of 38 participants in a controlled environment. It was found that negative tweets gained more attention and were viewed for longer durations. One of the best instances of this bias was seen when the ‘City Reporter’, a Russian website, lost two-thirds of its readership when it decided to publish only positive news stories for a day!

Framing Effect

News channels and publishers tend to, in fact, not just “report” the news, but make sure they spice it up appropriately to garner and sustain people’s attention. How a particular situation is narrated, that is positive or negative framing, also has an effect on a person’s response (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981). Negative words such as “never”, “die”, “worst”, which have proved to be more eye-catching, is used more by the media, particularly in headlines. There is also an association between gender and valence of the information: women have shown better memory and higher stress reactivity in response to negative news as compared to men (Marin et al, 2012).

Picture Superiority Effect

The media tries its best to evoke emotional reactions through its reports, and to maximize the effect, often uses disturbing and strong images. Everything – from images of dead bodies lying in a pool of blood to detailed descriptions of murder or terrorist attack – is reported sensationally, in an exaggerated manner. Be it Sushant Singh Rajput’s pre-autopsy dead body or gallows in Tihar jail, one can see all such images floating on news channels and social media within minutes of the occurrence of an incident. The reason behind excessive usage of such images is the phenomenon termed as the ‘picture superiority effect’, which means humans tend to remember and recall pictures much better than words. Such images, therefore, are bound to elicit strong negative emotions and hence be remembered by people.

The negativity bias and the framing and picture superiority effects, all combine to cause a range of physiological and psychological effects on people’s minds.

Physiological Effects of Negative News Reporting

Excessive exposure to negative information or news can cause the brain to perceive it as a threat, and as a result, might activate the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Stress hormones – adrenaline and cortisol – are released in response, which might result in physiological effects of stress such as fatigue and sleeplessness.

Psychological Effects of Negative News Reporting

As compared to positively-valenced or neutral news items, negatively-valenced news also causes heightened anxiety and a bad mood (Johnston & Davey, 1997). As a result, people tend to worry excessively about themselves and their near and dear ones. This, in fact, leads to more problems: people are tempted to check the news repeatedly, which heightens the anxiety and stress, thus forming a never-ending cycle.

Stress is the root cause of a variety of psychological disorders. A positive correlation was found between the number of hours an individual watched negative news and the amount of distress and the possibility of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Riehm et al, 2020). Moreover, for people who have personally experienced or been victims of any of the events being reported, the negative images and words used tend to elicit flashbacks of their own past experiences, thus making their healing process all the more difficult. This is because of the self-reference effect, or the tendency of humans to remember and recall those events better which are personally relevant or related to themselves in some way. When exposed to arousing bulletins, people hence tend to relate the negative information to their personal contexts (Johnston & Davey, 1997).

Negative Reporting and COVID-19 Pandemic

In the current times, when the world is battling a pandemic and everyone is confined within their homes, with nothing more than a tv screen or a laptop to entertain themselves with, many people are facing one or the other form of social isolation. The effect of the same can be seen in the huge rise in the number of people who reported mental health issues or sought professional help. A 20% increase in mental illnesses has been observed since the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak in India (Indian Psychiatric Society, 2020). Many people experience heightened levels of stress and anxiety as a result of watching or reading covid-related news. The figure below shows the sentiments evoked by various news headlines related to the pandemic, a vast majority (51.66%) of which evoked negative sentiments, while only 30.46% generated positive sentiments, and 17.87% were neutral (Aslam et al, 2020). The histogram depicting the sentiments, too, is weighted on the negative side.

With covid cases and related deaths reaching a new spike every day, news reporters, in a bid to reveal the mismanagement and failure of the government in handling the crisis, try to portray the situation as negatively as possible. Images and videos of hospitals running out of oxygen, people running around looking for hospital beds and plasma donations, crematoriums overflowing due to the rising number of covid-related deaths, and relatives weeping inconsolably, are traumatizing not just for those currently suffering from the disease, but also the ones who have won the battle against the virus. They fear being re-infected and do not feel safe even inside their homes. In fact, even those who have fortunately not contracted the infection are constantly worried and feel tempted to keep checking the news repeatedly. This may even lead to illness anxiety disorder and hypochondriasis amongst such people. Scarcity and unavailability of vaccines, masks, sanitizers, and protective equipment for frontline covid warriors is a huge cause of concern, leading to fear and anxiety amongst all people alike.

These images and reports haunt people round the clock, leading to nightmares, insomnia, and hypersomnia. Quite often, people wake up screaming, breathing heavily, or sweating excessively, and may even develop long-term sleep problems. About 15% of adult Indians reported some form of insomnia due to apprehensions and concerns related to the pandemic (Lahiri et al, 2021). As shown in the figure below, various factors such as higher age, isolation, generalized anxiety, and known co-morbid conditions were found to be correlated with increased levels of insomnia (Lahiri et al, 2021).

Studies have shown that this could also have long-term effects, leading to a decrease in the overall social interaction, with people being apprehensive about physical meetings even after the pandemic is over. Moreover, people could, in general, become more pessimistic about situations in life and their ability to handle them successfully. They might begin to view events more as a ‘threat’ than a ‘challenge’ since they would begin to feel that they are solely victims of the situation and have no control over it. Their sense of satisfaction with life might also decrease, along with a range of other effects.

Other Common Examples

This is just one of the countless examples we see every other day. Excessive coverage of celebrity suicides and deaths is another common example, the most recent one being the Sushant Singh Rajputs case, which was sensationalized and reported twenty-four-seven for several months following the claimed suicide. What the media did not realize was the effect this could have on young and vulnerable minds who considered this man as their role model. Consequently, a number of suicides of young adults were reported in several parts of the country within a few days following the SSR case. The excessive coverage of the incident hence triggered a series of suicides of ordinary people and celebrities alike, who were later found to be suffering from depression or other mental health issues and began to feel that suicide was a viable solution to their struggles.

Another common media practice is the focus on negative and corrupt political activities and rare reporting of any positive events and practices in the political arena. This has a negative effect on people’s overall belief in the democratic system, and even affects their sense of control over the chosen leaders. The effect is visible in the voter turnout which has recorded a reduction over the years in countries like the USA.

The list of such examples seems endless. The media needs to realize the effects and consequences of the evident bias in their choice and manner of reporting. There is a need to maintain a balance between positive and negative news items. News channels and publications should provide unbiased and unexaggerated information to the people with an aim to make them more aware and informed, rather than trying to increase their own readership and viewership. Only then can we hope to reduce and not aggravate the mental health issues that every fourth person may be suffering from (WHO, 2001).

References

Johnston, W. M., & Davey, G. C. (1997). The psychological impact of negative TV news bulletins: The catastrophizing of personal worries. British Journal of Psychology, 88(1), 85-91.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02622.x

Garz, M. (2014). Good news and bad news: evidence of media bias in unemployment reports. Public Choice, 161(3-4), 499-515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-014-0182-2

Grabe, M. E., & Kamhawi, R. (2006). Hard Wired for Negative News? Gender Differences in Processing Broadcast News. Communication Research, 33(5), 346–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206291479

Tversky A., Kahneman D. (1989) Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions. In: Karpak B., Zionts S. (eds) Multiple Criteria Decision Making and Risk Analysis Using Microcomputers. NATO ASI Series (Series F: Computer and Systems Sciences), vol 56. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-74919-3_4

 Kätsyri J, Kinnunen T, Kusumoto K, Oittinen P, Ravaja N (2016) Negativity Bias in Media Multitasking: The Effects of Negative Social Media Messages on Attention to Television News Broadcasts. PLoS ONE 11(5): e0153712. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153712

Schlenger WE, Caddell JM, Ebert L, Jordan BK, Rourke KM, et al. (2002) Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the National Study of Americans’ Reactions to September 11. JAMA 288: 581–588.  doi: 10.1001/jama.288.5.581

Lahiri, A., Jha, S. S., Acharya, R., Dey, A., & Chakraborty, A. (2021). Correlates of insomnia among the adults during COVID19 pandemic: evidence from an online survey in India. Sleep medicine, 77, 66-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.11.020

Marin M-F, Morin-Major J-K, Schramek TE, Beaupré A, Perna A, Juster R-P, et al. (2012) There Is No News Like Bad News: Women Are More Remembering and Stress Reactive after Reading Real Negative News than Men. PLoS ONE 7(10): e47189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047189

Anant Kumar & K. Rajasekharan Nayar (2020): COVID 19 and its mental health consequences, Journal of Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2020.1757052

Stoneham, M., Goodman, J., & Daube, M. (2014). The portrayal of Indigenous health in selected Australian media. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 5(1), 1-13. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/33658

Aslam, F., Awan, T.M., Syed, J.H. et al. (2020). Sentiments and emotions evoked by news headlines of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7, 23. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0523-3

Lindberg, S. (2020, May 18). Is watching the news bad for mental health? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/is-watching-the-news-bad-for-mental-health-4802320

The World Health Report 2001: Mental Disorders affect one in four people. (2001). WHO | World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/28-09-2001-the-world-health-report-2001-mental-disorders-affect-one-in-four-people

Riehm, K. E., Holingue, C., Kalb, L. G., Bennett, D., Kapteyn, A., Jiang, Q., … & Thrul, J. (2020). Associations between media exposure and mental distress among US adults at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. American journal of preventive medicine, 59(5), 630-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.06.008

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Target-Oriented Population Control during the Emergency Period (1975-1977)

A major breakthrough in the population control process took place when then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi announced a nationwide emergency in 1975 and rigorously enforced mass sterilization programmes to bring down the population growth rate. About 6.2 million Indian men were sterilised in just a year which, according to a 2014 BBC news report, was 15 times the number of people sterilized by the Nazis. Vasectomy was a safer procedure than tubectomy, especially at that time, as it required less recovery time and follow-up hence poor men became the main targets of this gruesome campaign. The campaign to sterilise men involved many levels of harassment. There were even reports of police dragging the men to mass vasectomy camps. Men were considered easier targets for threats like job loss or fines, since they were more likely to be employed outside the home, to take public transportation and to go out or pick up government food rations.

Incentives and disincentives were given on a large scale for acts such as getting oneself sterilized or convincing other citizens to get sterilized. From offering plots of land in return for sterilization to threatening the loss of a government job for those who refused the procedure. While both men and women could be sterilized, the medical system was equipped to do many more vasectomies than tubectomies. Records have shown that the sterilization process mostly targeted the poor citizens and that wealthier Indians were able to buy their way out of the system. The coercive measures and the sterilizations caused a great deal of anger among the people. This unrest caused in the country is also considered as one of the reasons why Indira Gandhi’s government was voted out in the 1977 elections.

Voluntary Period since 1997

The next major breakthrough happened after the emergency period where the Indian government took a 180° turn and began to turn its family planning policy towards women. Female sterilizations became by far the most popular method of contraception. Family planning programmes further extended to rural areas through the network of primary health centres. The most fundamental change of the Indian population policy since 1977 was that family planning became mostly voluntary. The Indian government now put more emphasis on incentives to attract people to accept family planning voluntarily instead of forceful measures. During the Seventh Five Year Plan period between 1986 and 1991, the Indian government’s population control policy extended to including both long term and short term as well as specific goals. The long-term goal was to fix the net reproduction rate to be achieved by 2001 and the short-term goal focused on the female minimum age of marriage and the practice of contraception. The specific goal was to promote a two-child norm by increasing awareness among the people about family planning and responsible parenthood. The government efforts in population control now also extended to increase the literacy rate of the population and especially women.

Formation of the ICPD (1994)

The year 1994 is considered to be a noteworthy one in the history of family planning programmes in the world since the International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD) convened under the United Nations at Cairo in 1994 made some recommendations that were accepted by many developing countries including India that changed the direction of family planning programmes. The conference recommended that family planning programmes should not be driven by demographic goals but instead, they should be based on women’s reproductive rights and reproductive health, keeping in mind the well-being of everyone (International Institute for Population Sciences, 2016).

Adoption of NPP in the year 2000

India adopted the National Population Policy (NPP) in the year 2000 which decentralized the decision making to local government and improved the coordination between the government and the local and non-government organizations. Stress was given to improve the status of mothers and children. The programme focuses on the improvement of health care infrastructure and services and the empowerment of women. It also gives more emphasis to use of contraceptive methods like IUCDs, promotes delayed marriage for girls, provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory education up to 14 years of age, seeks to achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine preventable diseases and to reduce infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births. Insurance is provided for the deaths, complications and failures caused by sterilization; compensating those who accept sterilizations and increasing male participation in family planning. Family welfare is now promoted as a people-centered program.

Endnote

Overpopulation is the root cause of numerous problems like low per capita income, unemployment and overburdened natural resources among many others. Therefore, the need of the hour today is a more effective measure to reduce the population growth in Indian society. Importance has to be given to population education, achievement of equal status for women and lower caste people, development of economy, urbanization, and modernization of the whole society. When socioeconomic conditions improve, the birth rate will be lower and the overpopulation problem will be reduced (Population Control Policies and Implementations in India, 2019).

References

• Biswas, S. (2014). India’s dark history of sterilisation. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30040790
• Srinivasan, K. (2016). “India’s Population Issues and Policies: Professionals’ Perceptions”, Working Paper No. 11, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai. https://www.iipsindia.ac.in/sites/default/files/IIPS_Working_Paper11.pdf
• Wang, G. T. Population Control Policies and Implementations in India. https://doi.org/10.15640/jssw.v7n2a14

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Objectives and Goals

The NPP 2000 emphasised a series of important measures including an increase in the monetary compensation for sterilization, introduction of ‘population education in the Indian education system, increase in the usage of mass media in rural areas to increase awareness about family planning and contraceptives etc and thus sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a voluntary basis, aiming to freeze the population figures at the 1971 level until 2001 till the farthest extent possible. Broadly, the NPP 2000 can be summed up into three main objectives: short, middle and long term objectives.

Short term objectives:

1. To address the unmet needs for contraception, healthcare infrastructure and health personnel.
2. To provide integrated service delivery in consonance with the guidelines of WHO.

Middle term objectives:

1. To control the population through intersectoral operational strategies which include intersectoral collaboration between health and education to prevent problems like adolescent pregnancy and thus bring down the total fertility rate.

Long term objectives:

1. To achieve a stable population by the year 2045 by attempting to satisfy the economic needs of the present generation but in a manner that sustains natural resources and the environment for future generations.

The following goals were formulated to be achieved in the first decade after the introduction of the National Population Policy in 2000:

1. To address the unmet needs for basic reproduction (contraception), child health services, supplies and infrastructure (health personnel).
2. To make school education up to age 14 free and compulsory and reduce dropouts at primary and secondary school levels to below 20 per cent for both boys and girls.
3. To reduce the infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1,000 live births.
4. To reduce the maternal mortality rate to below 100 per 100,000 live births.
5. To achieve universal immunization of children against all vaccine-preventable diseases.
6. To promote delayed marriages for girls, not earlier than age 18 and preferably after 20 years of age.
7. To achieve universal access to information/counselling, and services for fertility regulation and contraception with a wide basket of choices.
8. To achieve 80 per cent institutional deliveries and 100 per cent deliveries by trained persons.
9. To achieve 100 per cent registration of births, deaths, marriages and pregnancies
10. To prevent and control communicable diseases, especially AIDS and sexually transmitted infections (STIs).
11. To promote vigorously the small family norm.
12. To integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) in the provision of repro­ductive and child health services, and in reaching out to households.

In order to achieve these goals, certain promotional and motivational measures were also undertaken.

Current Outlook

Despite all the efforts and steps taken towards population control and family planning, the programme has failed to deliver any kind of desired results. According to a UNICEF report, in India, 67,385 births happen in a day. The reasons for the programme’s failure can be attributed to several reasons including large size of the population in the reproductive age group, higher fertility due to unmet needs of contraception, higher desire for fertility due to high infant mortality rate, ignorance of the rural masses about birth control techniques and the preference of a male child etc.

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Middle Eastern Cinema Explained

Middle Eastern Cinema is an amalgam of multiple film industries of Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Palestine, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. It can’t be studied as a single entity because each nation has its own film industry with a distinct history and cultural influences. But here also, space is dominated by Egyptian cinema as it has the largest commercial film market in the middle east. In recent years, the Middle East has given some of the finest films to the world. The emergence of the Middle Eastern Film Industry has not only put it on the global lens but has also contributed towards debunking the religious and cultural stereotypes surrounding the Middle East. They have used their films to reclaim their voice and to tell their story from their own perspective. Middle eastern cinema touches upon the issues of gender, identity, the physical and psychological consequences of the wars and conflicts.

Problems Faced by Middle Eastern Film Industry

There is no doubt that  Middle Eastern Cinema has come a long way and is producing some of the finest works. But the road is not easy. The film industry faces a lot of problems because of the political and cultural institutions in the country. The governments in the majority of Arab nations do not consider the film industry as an important sector. Filmmakers with immense talent, often have to struggle because of a lack of opportunities and funds. According to Farida Marei, “The government usually does not give any help or gives a little in rare cases. Cinema is not one of the priorities on their agenda as they look at cinema as pure entertainment and therefore it comes at the bottom of their list”. Lack of government support is one of the main reasons why so many brilliant film ideas don’t materialize as the filmmakers don’t have the necessary means.

Censorship and demonisation of films and the film industry is another major issue that plagues the Middle Eastern film industry. Middle Eastern countries have stringent censorship laws. Countries like Bahrain, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, censor their media and films heavily. In fact, Turkmenistan runs the third most stringent censorship program in the world and all foreign publications and non-government libraries are banned. These censorship policies apply to the film industry as well. A lot of films fail to get the approval of the government and hence never reach the audiences. According to middle eastern censorship laws, any material dealing with government policies, religion or any kind of sexual activity is prohibited. Farida Marei gives a few examples of the implications of stringent censorship laws- “There are many examples in this direction – the films Five Doors (Khamsah Bab), and The Road of Love (Darb al-Hawa) were both denied approval until the writer removed some intimate scenes. Even after removing them and after the films were ready for screening, they were both banned because there was still too much intimacy (in their opinion)”.

One of the main reasons why these strong censorship laws aren’t going to be relaxed anytime soon is because of the huge support from the masses. In middle eastern countries, religion is very strong and influences the masses. Religion and cultural beliefs could be the major factors why the films are demonised in the middle east by the government and the majority of the population, alike. Northwestern University in Qatar, in partnership with Doha Film Institute, conducted a survey ‘Entertainment Media Use In The Middle East: A Six nation Survey’. The results of this survey are a clear indicator that the people of the middle eastern nations heavily support the censorship laws and the restrictions on the media and entertainment industry. According to the survey-

“The large majority of the people surveyed believe entertainment should be more tightly regulated when it comes to violent and romantic content, and that some scenes should be deleted or whole programs banned if some people find them offensive (about seven in ten agree with each of these statements). Conversely, less than a third expresses the opposing opinion that films and television shows should be shown in their entirety even if some people find the content inappropriate (29%).”

The survey also uncovers the extent to which cultural beliefs influence the censorship laws as- “About eight in ten of those with strong feelings about cultural traditions support the regulation of violent and romantic content and also support banning or deleting offensive content, compared with two-thirds of those who are less concerned with preserving their cultural traditions”.

Conclusion

Even though the situation seems pretty bleak, there is still a ray of hope. Despite the stringent censorship laws and various other restrictions, The Middle Eastern film industry continues to produce some of the most profound and moving films. Even though the filmmakers have to face a lot of problems in order to produce good quality cinema and to ensure that it reaches a wide range of audience, they haven’t given up. A lot of filmmakers have repeatedly challenged the strict laws of the government in court. And a lot of times the results have favoured them. This is a great sign that middle eastern cinema is flourishing and will soon overcome the dilemma of censorship and demonisation to realise its full potential.

Featured Image: Still from Ghadi by Amin Dora

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I got down to widespread research on other alternatives that were available in the Indian markets and decided to go for tampons. These required lesser manoeuvring of the product and provided more fluidity of body movement. However, an abbreviation kept popping up every now and then while opening fresh packs- TSS. Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS) is a rare but life-threatening condition caused by the overgrowth of bacteria called Staphylococcus aureus, or staph that gets stuck into the body and releases harmful toxins. It’s often found to affect those who use the super absorbent variety because a tampon, warm and soaked with blood, is an ideal place for bacteria to grow. Moreover, it was just as problematic as a pad because there were leakage issues and sleeping with tampons inside the body for too long wasn’t an option.

Digging deep into how a menstrual cup is really used, its pros and cons, different types and folds, I found myself questioning how it first came into being and why a majority of us still prefer using a sanitary pad instead. Living beings don’t adapt to changes easily because apprehension about something new and the fear of the unknown plays a massive role in it.

Evolution of the Menstrual Cup

Catamenial Sack- S. L. Hockert (1867) 

S. L. Hockert from Chicago, Illinois invented the Catamenial Sack ^[1] in the year 1867. The idea of a Catamenial Sack was the first prototype of a menstrual cup. It was a rubber pouch connected to an adjustable length wire (via a screw on the front) that was further attached to a belt worn around the waist. A string attached to the bottom of the pouch was to aid in the removal of the pouch just like a string in tampons. The wire was presumably rigid and was to help hold the cup in place and in shape to avoid it from slipping off or coming out. It often featured a small sponge for extra absorbency. There is no evidence of it being manufactured.

First Menstrual Cup Patent- McGlasson & Perkins (1932)

An early version of a bullet-shaped menstrual cup was known to be patented in 1932 by the midwifery group of McGlasson and Perkins. However, it was never commercialized and made available for the general mass.

First Commercialized Menstrual Cup Patent- Leona Chalmers (1937)

After the invention of menstrual cups in 1932, Leona Chalmers decided to take them a notch higher and make them available for the general mass. Hence Chalmers commercialized usable menstrual cups in 1937. She patented a design of a menstrual cup that was made from latex rubber, was soft as well as firm enough to not slip out. Her patent application stated that the design won’t cause “uncomfortableness or consciousness of its presence”. It also allowed women to wear “thin, light, close-fitting clothing” without belts, pins or buckles that would bother them or would show like the Catamenial Sack.

First Brand –‘TASS-ETTE’ later ‘TASSETTE’ (Latex Rubber, 1950s)

The 1930’s menstrual cup brand, “Tass-ette,” came up after Leona Chalmers designed the same. It faced hurdles during World War II as a shortage of raw material, latex rubber, occurred and the company was forced to stop production. After the war in the early 1950s, Mrs Chalmers made some improvements, modified the structure and patented a new design. Thus, it was re-launched as “Tassette” at the end of the 1950s with a bigger advertising budget. This cup was not well accepted even though women were far more progressive than in the 1930s they were somehow not ready for a menstrual cup with the idea of reusable internal protection. 

First Disposable Menstrual Cup-TASSAWAY (1966)

It was important to address problems that popped up concerning emptying or cleaning the Tassette cup. Those who were happy with the product didn’t feel the need to repurchase another since it was a reusable product. So, in the late 1960s, Tassette Inc. decided to come up with a solution to the biggest problem they were facing. They patented and began manufacturing a new disposable menstrual cup, “Tassaway,” to compete with the emerging market of disposable menstrual products. It was a big success and extremely popular in Europe. 

THE KEEPER (1987)

Reusable menstrual cups came back into the market in 1987. Another cup made out of latex rubber called ‘The Keeper’ was manufactured in the United States. The popularity picked up at a good speed as women were much more progressive and discontinuation of menstrual cups was not seen as an option thereafter. 

MOONCUP- First Silicon Menstrual Cup (2001)

The first silicone menstrual cup that became popular in the market was the UK-manufactured Mooncup in 2001. At the beginning of the 21st century a new material, medical-grade silicone, was integrated into the design which yielded great success. It ensured women a safer period cycle without latex allergies. Since Mooncup was a huge success Lunnette, Diva Cup, PeeSafe, The Women’s Company and other such brands started manufacturing the same kind of cups.

Pros & Cons of Menstrual Cup

It’s rightly said that we decide which pattern we really want to break and not let it trickle down to the next generation. When I thought of giving the menstrual cup a second try my mother was apprehensive about it too. Reading up the pros and cons, watching tons of informatory videos and a lot of self-exploration helped me more than I expected to not just understand the concept but also formulate an opinion of my own. I never found a proven drawback or medical threat with regard to cups but somehow the number of women who feel comfortable using a cup is just a handful compared to the vast chunk willing to settle for sanitary pads.

A menstrual cup in its true sense is a bell-shaped silicone cup that is folded for a smoother insertion into the vagina. It slides in and pops open to form a seal against the walls of the vagina. This helps catch all the menstrual fluid and can be emptied according to one’s convenience. This is not just the ‘real game-changer’ but a life-altering experience altogether.

The blood doesn’t get a chance to flow out and spread like jam on bread, hence there are no chances of irritation, odour, infection or rashes. Concerning flexibility and mobility, one can easily spread their legs and sleep in whichever position they want because gone are those days of uncomfortable sleepless nights. It provides comfort without making one conscious about its presence inside the body. Swimming with the cup on makes life so much easier.

Emptying it according to the flow of blood depends from person to person but it can hold blood up to 12 hours at a stretch which is very convenient for someone who’s travelling, attending lectures, working long hours or even lying around like a sloth. One must note that menstrual cups don’t make the vagina dry, they keep the good bacteria intact, and are not associated with Toxic Shock Syndrome (TSS) in any way. Hence it’s a win-win situation for all! Cups are also very environment friendly and avoid adding to a lot of unnecessary waste that’s hardly biodegradable.

Sustainable Development Goals

United Nations (2015) adopted 17 Sustainable Development Goals and these SDGs are structured and well defined, in such a way that they address important problems from the health and sustainability perspective. However, Menstrual Hygiene is not explicitly mentioned in any of the SDGs but still directly linked to achieving several SDGs^[2]. SDG 3 ensures healthy lives and promotes wellbeing for all at all age; SDG 4 ensures inclusive and equitable quality education and promotes lifelong learning; SDG 5 which is all about achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls; SDG 6 ensures availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all and SDG 8 that focuses on decent work & economic growth. Menstrual health and hygiene are thus intertwined with various SDGs and a slight positive change in one creates a domino effect in all the other SDGs too.

Conclusion

There are a lot of developing countries and talking about menstrual health and hygiene is a comparatively difficult task even today. Many communities are hesitant to embrace menstrual cups because of moral concerns about hymen, virginity, masturbation, and its potential to act as contraception.

Though we’ve transitioned into an advanced world there are a lot of women who still use old cloths, rags and cotton to soak their blood instead of proper products due to poverty, illiteracy, unawareness and other factors that play a crucial role which increases mortality rates and diseases day by day.

Educational institutions hardly hold menstrual awareness workshops for students in developing and underdeveloped countries. They glorify basic information in the name of awareness and certainly keep the boys away from it. That’s exactly how regressive our understanding of period blood is as a society and the role of men in menstruation remains a far-fetched dream. The stigmatized status of menstruation questions the basic menstrual needs of women hence it’s disturbing to witness how the 21st century continues to pursue a stoic silence on the issue regardless of the impact. Menstrual cups have evolved over all these years and it’s high time we consider evolving too!

References:

[1] S. L. Hockert, “Catemenial Sack,” 12-Nov-1867.

[2] International Journal of Health Sciences & Research (www.ijhsr.org) Pg- 379; Vol.8; Issue: 5; May 2018

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India, spanning across 29 states and 8 union territories, offers unique ethnic, religious and linguistic diversity. While taking a stroll in the streets of India, one can see people doing their daily stuff, whatever that is. Or they are just standing and sitting around talking in a large group of people. Whatever they are engaged in, one thing is universal. They seem to be relaxed in whatever they do and be at peace with themselves and the environment. It is as if they don’t need the word ‘happy’ in their vocabulary to feel good and relaxed: they are fine with how it is. In India, happiness is not an abstract term. that people all intend to have as their life’s goal.

Maybe the Indian version of happiness has something to do with the present activities. Maybe being happy is just equivalent to being yourself. It’s more about not wishing for anything else and not to have big desires for which we would be willing to give something dear but to find these desires and happiness in the things we already have and as a result be grateful and at peace. Maybe it is acceptance of what is instead of hoping for what may be. 

Happiness, Well-being and Human Development

It is quite understandable that the ultimate objective of social and economic development is to provide improvements in the lives of men and women who generate employment now and the younger generation who we hope will generate in the future. This makes the idea of well-being universal: achieving a state of well-being has to be inclusive everywhere, whether in developed or developing countries (OECD, 2015).

Well-being is a focal concept: human well-being provides a means of understanding the growing relationships between apparently diverse ideas and issues that abound as and often appear to compete, in the international agendas. The proper study of human well-being provides a possible way to map out the relationship between poverty and sustainability as it helps us to explore the relationship between various economic dimensions and development such as productivity and efficiency, social cohesion and governance which are vital for the successful overall development (OECD, 2015).

Following the need to study the relevance of happiness, well-being and human development, various methodologies were developed in the international conferences and meetings of the United Nations (UN), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). These methodologies presented frameworks that incorporated the socio-economic indicators which can be used to assess the improvements in human well-being. One of the innovations suggested by the well-being approach saw human well-being as a holistic phenomenon. The framework which was put forward by OECD was known as ‘How is Life’ framework. This provides a good example of this multidimensional approach to measuring human well-being that can be used to discuss its relevance for developing countries.

The above figure depicts the process of the OECDs ‘How is Life’ framework which involves three categories of variables. These three categories are listed below: 

• Material Conditions
• Quality of Life
• Sustainability 

Within each of these three categories, there are a certain set of variables upon which data is assembled. Under ‘Material Conditions’ following three variables are listed:

• Income and wealth
• Jobs and earnings
• Housing 

The variables included in the category ‘Quality of Life’ are listed below:

• Health status
• Work and life balance
• Education and skills
• Social connections
• Civic engagement and governance
• Environmental quality
• Personal security
• Subjective well-being

In the last ‘Sustainability’ category there are four types of capitals which are identified as being significant for the process that produces both material well-being and quality of life outcomes. These are listed below:

• Natural capital
• Economic capital
• Human capital
• Social capita

Thus the major innovation will lie in the integrated adoption of a multidimensional approach to understanding progress which integrally considers people’s subjective evaluation of their quality of life. 

Subjective Well-being as an Alternate Tool for Policy Evaluation

In recent times, subjective wellbeing measures have established themselves as reliable alternatives to standard economic indicators of welfare. Intertest in subjective metrics have been largely driven by the growing dissatisfaction with the conventional use of objective indicators like GDP to evaluate the impact of economic activities on public and private sector decision making. This has led international organisations such as the UN and OECD to advise against using the GDP as a measure of economic progress as it does not capture the outcomes that matter to the well-being of the people. 

Today, the governments in places like New Zealand, Wales, Iceland and Scotland have advocated and justified the use of subjective well-being matrices in evaluating public policy. As a result of which these countries have recently established the Wellbeing Economy Governments Alliance (WEGO) that aims to promote and share their expertise and transferable policy practices in regard to subjective well-being (Wiking, 2020).

The core benefit of using subjective well-being is that it measures individual experience by directly asking people to report how they feel about their lives. This is in contrast to the conventional economic metrics like inflation rate, unemployment rate and GDP per capita that focus instead on people’s market behaviour. The measures of subjective well-being have proven to be reliable across varying contexts. They remain stable over time, correlate with the third party, associate with physiological makers, respond to life changes and even help in predicting future socio-economic behaviour of individuals including suicide. 

It is observed that the United Nations for the last eight years has published national rankings of subjective wellbeing in their World Happiness Report. These well-being measures have proven to be aligned with economic objective country conditions, including GDP per capita, life expectancy and levels of corruption. Subjective wellbeing metrics are therefore poised to reveal important underlying dynamics that can help us to understand how people have felt and behaved during the COVID-19 pandemic (Wiking, 2020). 

The Lessons Learnt From Nordic Countries

From 2013 till today, every time the World Happiness Report (WHR) has published its annual ranking of countries, the five Nordic countries- Finland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Iceland have all been placed in the top ten with Nordic countries occupying the top three spots in 2017, 2018 and 2019. It is of no doubt that whether we look at the state of democracy, structure of political institutions, lack of corruption, social cohesion, trust between the citizens, gender equality or Human Development Index, one can easily find the Nordic countries in the global top spots (Martela & Greve, 2020). 

There has been a lot of research done on finding the reasons that make Nordic citizens so exceptionally satisfied with their lives. Through reviewing the existing literature the prominent factors responsible for the happiness of Nordic citizens include quality of institutions, low corruption and proper well-functioning of democracy and political institutions. In addition, Nordic citizens experience a high sense of freedom as well as high levels of social trust among each other that play a significant role in determining life satisfaction (Martela & Greve, 2020). 

Denmark is one of the top five happiest nations in the world. It has consistently remained in the top three global spots in the World Happiness Report. Comparing the Indian and Danish GDP, the GDP growth rate of Denmark averaged 0.40% from 1991 to 2018 while the annual growth rate of India’s GDP averaged at 6.61% from 1951 to 2018 (Trading Economics, 2019). Indian economy is much larger as compared to Danish economy. However, there are other factors than financial prosperity and GDP that makes the Danish people among the top happiest in the world. 

If India has to go the Nordic way, it can adopt some features of the happy country as mentioned in Figure 2. It clearly depicts that Denmark does simple things elegantly and makes it the motto of their life. They seek happiness in the small happening of their life and build a hyggelig environment around themselves (Sarkar, 2018). 

Weaving the Path for India to Follow the Nordic Happiness Way: A Long Way Ahead

The happiness of the citizens in India needs to follow a six-pronged strategy to go the Nordic way of living and can be counted as a happy nation in near future. This strategy is depicted in the figure below:

Indian policymakers should carefully observe how education, transport, health and social policies will affect the happiness of citizens. Furthermore, policies that aim to promote public cooperation and equality are equally likely helpful in increasing the subjective indicators of well-being like longevity. India has been a place for poverty research for a very long period of time. With the appropriate policies in place, maybe it could become a laboratory to study happiness one day. 

Bibliography

Martela, F., & Greve, B. (2020, March 20). The Nordic Exceptionalism: What Explains Why the Nordic Countries Are Constantly Among the Happiest in the World. World Happiness Report. https://worldhappiness.report/ed/2020/the-nordic-exceptionalism-what-explains-why-the-nordic-countries-are-constantly-among-the-happiest-in-the-world/

OECD. (2015, April 5). MEASURING WELL-BEING FOR DEVELOPMENT. OECD Development Centre. https://www.oecd.org/site/oecdgfd/Session%203.1%20-%20GFD%20Background%20Paper.pdf

Sarkar, D. D. (2018, April 13). India and the happiness quotient. Mint. https://www.livemint.com/Opinion/n5HPI9id2l3jBrjZLut3SL/India-and-the-happiness-quotient.html

Trading Economics. (2019, August 4). Denmark and India-Economic Indicators. Trading Economics. https://tradingeconomics.com/denmark/indicators

Wiking, M. (2020, June 20). Wellbeing in the age of COVID-19. Happiness Research Institute. https://6e3636b7-ad2f-4292-b910-faa23b9c20aa.filesusr.com/ugd/928487_f35139968bca4668b456726d010e8d45.pdf

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One shouldn’t presume that Beijing and New Delhi have always been on the opposite poles of the spectrum as serious attempts have always been made to facilitate discussion and promote diplomacy in its truest essence. From the Panchseel Agreement of 1945 to the recent Galway valley violence of 2020 – do these countries still believe in dialogue for peace’ as the belief that the Ministry of External Affairs holds or has– Hindi-Chinni Bhai-Bhai period already becoming into Hindi-Chinni bye-bye period.

While promising a stable bilateral relationship it is imperative to note how cross-cutting sensitive issues of the border dispute, country contours, diverging projections of geopolitical interest, security ties with other powers, close affiliations with Pakistan and the United States forces us to look at multiple vantage points in this already complicated affair – thus raising the burning questions whether as INDIA and China both take over the world stage are they willing to ‘confront’ and ‘concile’?

“Today, being the biggest developing countries in the world, China and India are both committed to developing their economy and raising their people’s living standards’’

– Li Peng

INTRODUCTION

The past 60 years of India- China relations have signalled that both countries have been making a concerted effort to embark on seeking mutually acceptable resolutions to the main contention relating to a boundary issue. The major provocations which confront this asymmetrical correspondence been to build mutual trust and confidence. The trust deficit which plagues both sides has decimated the robustness of bilateral relationships where the element of trust is an essential pillar in maintaining a sustained balance. Somehow, the lack of these essential components of confidence-building feigns grounds of hostility towards one – another and gives rise to biases dwelling on power dynamics.

The deepening of relations can be traced to the signing of the Strategic and Cooperative Partnership for Peace and Prosperity in 2005 and A Shared Vision for 21st Century in 2008 which serves as a reminder of our neighbourhood while laying foundations for a future that envisions us growing together; however it’s saddening to see how we are walking on eggshells now as our cordial relations reach a breakthrough.

Undoubtedly, India and China have emerged as the two rapidly growing economies and their bilateral relationship to a greater extent has assumed global and strategic relevance. The objective of this article will be to assess and analyze the broad overview of India-China relations, throwing light on issues that fragment them while we chart our future prospects of convergence. It is of utmost importance to questions what lies the way forward for both the ‘dragon’ and the ‘peacock’ as uncertain times dawn and reciprocal development is the need of the hour.

EVOLUTION OF RELATIONSHIP

Taking a glimpse of the past 70 years gone by, China-India relations have moved ahead despite wind and rain and have followed their own course of growth despite all odds. Since the 1950s, the leaders laid the stone to establish diplomatic relations between China and India, as they Cooperatively championed the ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence.’

As consensus was maintained in the era of initial cordiality the Panchsheel Agreement was signed which ascribed the ‘guiding principles’ of India-China bilateral relationship as its ideals of ‘non-interference in each other’s internal affairs while respect for territorial unity, integrity and sovereignty’ coursed through both nations.

However, it was Zhou Enlai’s trip to India in June 1954 which was a mark of China’s intent to uphold it promises while also reinstating another historic event where a communist head of government was making a peacetime visit to a non-communist state.

The animosity and hostilities gained momentum during the decade of 1959 – 1976, where this rough patch resulted in the infamous war of 1962. During this period, there was a sharp shift in the perception of China where negative connotations of it being seen as an aggressive neighbour that sought to humiliate a democratic India garnered headlines. A dramatic transference of ideologies as well as values of peaceful and friendly consultation,

established strategic and cooperative partnership for peace and prosperity, while achieving all-round development of bilateral relations marked the much of 1980s.

In the post-1998 scenario after India detonated a nuclear device, China was a staunch critic of this development thus putting a roadblock in their relationship. However, the situation changed after the realisation set in about each other’s contribution to the global economy and to a greater extent started broadening the then-existing bilateral ties. The strain in the relationship was replaced by an era of cooperation in the economic sphere while disagreements on respective political fronts.

While tracing the genealogy of Sino – Indian relations we come across the phase commenced by the Chinese President Xi Jinping and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi by initiating the concept of “hometown diplomacy” which ranged from informal summits in Wuhan and Chennai to strategic communication on long-term issues of global and regional importance while agreeing to facilitate development and close partnership

Today’s achievements of China-India relations embody the concise and regular efforts of several generations from whom we need to draw inspiration from the past as experiences of the present tragically make us critical of each other’s intentions.

As we stand on the brink of a new starting point present-day decision-makers should draw wisdom from our thousands of years of civilisations and explore authentic ways to stay true to the essence of ‘ brotherhood’ envisioned years ago as we look forward towards; “enhancing mutual trust, focusing on cooperation, managing differences and seeking common development”.

CHALLENGES TO THE INDIA-CHINA PARTNERSHIP

Indian President Ram Nath Kovind and Prime Minister Narendra Modi often resonate with the philosophy, where the whole world is seen as a family of the whole rather than functioning in splinters, which runs parallel with the Chinese philosophical concept of “universal peace” and “universal love” thus reiterating the belief that the “Dragon-Elephant Tango” does hold the potential to create a new chapter in building a community with a shared future if they agree to make credible and foresighted peaceful endeavours towards the issues of contention like :

• To devise an early settlement of the border problem and to prevent the enduring stalemate from completely undermining the confidence that remains between the two nations
• To reconcile regional strategies in South Asia, Central Asia, ASEAN, and the Indian Ocean;
• To promote confidence-building measures and eliminate misperceptions while avoiding the misreading of each other’s strategic intentions,
• To envisage each other’s core interests and strategic sensitivities
• To reinforce the bolstering effect of vibrant trade, economic links and developmental ties in sustaining a stable bilateral relationship;
• To breathe more substance into the existing framework of the declared Sino-Indian strategic partnership.

THE WAY THAT LIES AHEAD

This journey of facilitating change and strengthening the relationship needs to be steered by mastering the four keys of “leading, transmitting, shaping and integrating” – the basics of enhancing trust and to instil confidence amongst one – another.

“Leading” pertains to reaching consensus and guide the direction of the development of bilateral relations under the guidance of leaders. “Transmitting” means to transmit the leaders’ consensus to all levels as they get translated into tangible cooperation and outcomes. “Shaping” refers to go beyond the mode of managing differences while accumulating the positive momentum of shaping bilateral relations. “Integrating” at the end concerns strengthening exchanges and cooperation while promoting convergence of interests and achieve common development.

There is no doubt in saying that the levels of engagement between India and China have increased certainly but India, at the same time, requires to move forward with a sophisticated approach to deal with the emerging strategic challenges being emanating from China. Power dynamics often remain at the core of weak reciprocal agreements however this holds no vitality in the context here as, despite the fact that China has become increasingly assertive not only at the regional level but also at the global level, India has not shown any displeasure so far in strongest terms.

In the current circumstances, it is obvious that trade has come to be viewed as an increasingly important facilitator of relations especially in the shadow of lingering political mistrust as issues ranging from the long-running protracted border dispute to China’s close affiliations with Pakistan to India’s cordial allegiance with the US defies the purpose of simplifying the conflict.

The signing of an Agreement on “Political Parameters and Guiding Principles for the Settlement of the Border Dispute”, by both India and China is a major stride in moving ahead in terms of reaching a consensus on this major irritant while also joining hands in a promise to maintain peace and tranquillity on the border front. But, at the same, it’s needless to highlight that this requires a careful assessment especially on the intent and declarations of outcomes.

China has always been a hardcore follower of following the tenets of the ‘Monroe Doctrine’. The attempt has always been to deny access to other powers in the region that it perceives as exclusively within its sphere of influence. As the time has come to breathe more substance into the existing framework of strategic partnership it is essential on the part of India to remind Beijing how these stipulated actions have been damaging the interests of other regions especially to the countries in the East and South-East Asia.

In the long term, neither Indian nor Chinese defence strategists can rule out the possibility of a renewed confrontation over the disputed territory (Tibet, Kashmir, Myanmar, or the Indian Ocean ) as China becomes the other alternative unchallenged power and India continues to increase its circumference of influence thus signalling that a Sino-Indian rivalry in southern Asia may well be a dominant feature of future Asian geopolitics of the twenty-first century thus compelling the regional actors to choose sides. The nature of the rivalry will be facilitated by how domestic political and economic developments, as well as internal mechanisms of these two countries, affect their power, their outlooks, and their foreign and security policies on the international platform. On the flip side, it can also be noted that while they are competitors for power and influence in Asia, China and India also share interests in maintaining regional stability as well as exploiting economic opportunities while promoting regional cooperation – all of which could act as indispensable factors in influencing their relationship.

Last but not least, there comes a pressing necessity where one under these idealistic terms of co-operation, unity and oneness must not forget the real question where countries wonder: ‘WHETHER CO-OPERATION AND COMPARATIVE ELEMENTS IN BETWEEN POWERFUL WORLD POWERS COEXIST ?’

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Keshab, Chandra & Ratha, (2014); ‘India-China Bilateral Relations “

Kumar, R. (2007), “Cultural and Economic Relations between India and China”

Nehru, J. (1946), “The Discovery of India”, Oxford University Press; pp 30-42 .

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Earlier, Prime Minister Mark Rutte was against the decision of resigning and subsequently dissolving the coalition government. He insisted that there is a need to have political stability in the wake of the pandemic. However, the coalition parties believed that a political backfire was bound to happen, and the consequences were unavoidable after the release of the parliamentary report. [2] 

It was only after this that in a press conference the Prime Minister said: “We are of one mind that if the whole system has failed, we all must take responsibility, and that has led to the conclusion that I have just offered the king, the resignation of the entire Cabinet.” [3]

With this statement, he confirmed that he and his government take full responsibility for the scandal and submit their resignation to King Willem-Alexander van Oranje. [4] 

At the same time, he reaffirmed that although he has resigned, he will play the role of the government’s role until the next general elections scheduled on March 17 this year. As per many political experts, there is a likely shift to the Dutch social policy left after this scandal. Nonetheless, one cannot deny that respite the resignation, and the Prime Minister has instead been able to escape relatively untouched successfully.

What Is the Child Benefits Scandal?

In the Netherlands, childcare is private. Under the tax department’s earlier policies, parents had to pay for childcare, but they did get subsidies that depended on their income. However, after Mark Rutte took over as the Prime Minister in 2010, several changes were made to the anti-benefit fraud laws. These measures were further taken in 2013 after authorities reported illegal methods used by Bulgarian crooks to collect such payments. [5]

With the policies’ changes, the tax department was given more power to make sure that such misuse of benefits does not occur. Also, this allowed the tax department to compensate for the seized funds.

However, things soon started going downhill when the negatives of these laws started impacting the Dutch citizens. Several parents lost both benefits and were further asked by the authorities to repay the child benefits that they had received in the past. It affected over 26,000 families, of which 10,000 households were forced to repay benefits. It led to bankruptcies, divorces and unemployment among those people. [6] Even when the citizens contacted the authorities with their grievances, there was no genuine response. [7] 

These complaints soon started piling up and finally in 2017, the government-appointed an official to look into these complaints. On a thorough check, it was observed that a disproportionate number were of immigrant parents who lost the child benefits. When the need for further information was required for evidence gathering, the parliamentary inquires got only a little information from the ministries with most of the information blacked out. However, one thing was exact, and civil servants had cut child benefits to families from 2013 to 2019. [8]  

By the end of 2019, an estimated amount of € 500 million, about €30,000 ($36,300) for each family was set aside. [9] Also, the current scheme was decided to be expanded. and expanded compensation was set aside when the government accepted its mistake, although payments were not made. [10]

The final nail in the coffin was the parliamentary report, [11] that brought out the government had falsely accused several parents of tax defrauding. It is a grave injustice done to the people of the Netherlands. In a separate investigation, the Dutch Data Protection Authority concluded that tax inspectors had discriminated against citizens with dual nationality. [12] 

In November, a report [13] ranked the Netherlands government is considered a leading global tax haven for large corporations. So the government chasing the individuals for such small amounts thus did not go unnoticed.

Families Reaction to This Scandal

Several families have been affected by these mishaps on the government’s side. So, they are suing the government. Ornaldo Kadir is an attorney who is currently representing over 600 families stated that it was predominantly immigrant Dutch citizens that were target due to the method of ethnic profiling. It used a particular algorithm that characterized immigrant dutch citizens of dual nationals to be a fraudster. Not only that, but even missing signatures were considered as a parameter by the tax authorities to brand the people as frauds. It was not only an injustice but also a violation of the constitution. [14]

Way Ahead

Several ministers such as Health Minister Tamara Van Ark, Finance Minister Wopke Hoekstra, and former Tax Minister Menno Snel and opposition Labour Party leader Lodewijk Asscher have been named court documents.

The Leader of the Opposition Labour Party, Lodewijk Asscher who held the Social Affairs Minister, office from 2012-2017 has also stepped down from his current position due to the “unheard justice” done to people the Netherlands. It was his resignation that forced Prime Minister Mark Rutte to revisit his position on the issue. Eric Wiebes, Economic Affairs Minister, also resigned and stated that he would not be a part of the current guardian government. [15]

With the general elections scheduled in March, the current child benefits scandal is likely to significantly less impact Prime Minister Mark Rutte’s popularity. According to polls, it is expected that his People’s Party for Freedom and Democracy is likely to win a fourth term if he gets the largest share of votes. In other words, Mark Rutte’s VVD party is ahead of the far-right leader Geert Wilders’s party. If he wins, Prime Minister Mark Rutte would continue as the government’s head by forming a new coalition. [16]

With this scandal, the Netherlands in the third European country to be caught up in a political crisis. Earlier, Prime Minister, Giuseppe Conte had to resign due to falling in the majority after their coalition party led by Renzi backed out and also the government in Estonia had to resign due to a corruption scandal.

References

[1] Erdbrink, Thomas. “Playing by the Rules: Dutch Leader Offers a Sober Contrast in a Brash Era.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 2 June 2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/05/28/world/europe/rutte-dutch-netherlands.html.

[2] Schaart, Eline. Mark Rutte Pulls Plug on Dutch Government, PLANS Immediate Return. 15 Jan. 2021, www.politico.eu/article/dutch-government-resigns-over-childcare-benefit-scandal/.

[3] Press, Associated. “Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte and His Entire Cabinet Resign over Child Welfare Scandal.” Free Press Journal, 15 Jan. 2021, www.freepressjournal.in/world/dutch-prime-minister-mark-rutte-and-his-entire-cabinet-resign-over-child-welfare-scandal.

[4] “Dutch PM Mark Rutte and His Entire Cabinet Quits over Welfare Scandal.” Hindustan Times, 17 Jan. 2021, www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/dutch-pm-mark-rutte-and-his-entire-cabinet-quits-over-welfare-scandal-101610900452800.html.

[5] “Netherlands Uncovers $120m ‘Bulgarian Fraud’ Benefits Scam.” BBC News, BBC, 25 June 2013, www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-23043543.

[6] “Dutch Government Resigns over Child Benefits Scandal.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 15 Jan. 2021, www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/15/dutch-government-resigns-over-child-benefits-scandal.

[7] Berg, Stephanie van den. “Dutch Government Quits over ‘Colossal Stain’ of Tax Subsidy Scandal.” Reuters, Thomson Reuters, 15 Jan. 2021, www.reuters.com/article/us-netherlands-politics-resignation-idUSKBN29K1IO.

[8] Amaro, Silvia. “Dutch Government Resigns after Childcare Benefits Scandal.” CNBC, CNBC, 15 Jan. 2021, www.cnbc.com/2021/01/15/dutch-government-resigns-after-childcare-benefits-scandal-.html.

[9] “Dutch Rutte Government Resigns over Child Welfare Fraud Scandal.” BBC News, BBC, 15 Jan. 2021, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-55674146.

[10] “Dutch Government Faces Collapse over Child Benefits Scandal.” The Guardian, Guardian News and Media, 14 Jan. 2021, www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/14/dutch-government-faces-collapse-over-child-benefits-scandal.

[11]www.tweedekamer.nl/sites/default/files/atoms/files/20201217_eindverslag_parlementaire_ondervragingscommissie_kinderopvangtoeslag.pdf.

[12] Markus, Niels. “Belastingdienst Werkte Zeer Kritische Autoriteit Persoonsgegevens Tegen.” Trouw, 17 July 2020, www.trouw.nl/binnenland/belastingdienst-werkte-zeer-kritische-autoriteit-persoonsgegevens-tegen~b69beed9/.

[13] The State of Tax Justice: Tax Justice in the Time of COVID-19. Nov. 2020, The_State_of_Tax_Justice_2020_ENGLISH.pdf.

[14] “Dutch Government Quits over ‘Colossal Stain’ of Tax Subsidy Scandal.” Mint, 15 Jan. 2021, www.livemint.com/news/world/dutch-government-quits-over-colossal-stain-of-tax-subsidy-scandal-11610728718467.html.

[15] Kok, Laurens. DPG Media Privacy Gate, 14 Jan. 2021, www.ad.nl/dossier-vertrek-asscher/kabinetsval-dichterbij-blijven-zitten-terwijl-asscher-wel-zijn-conclusies-trekt-is-lastig-uitlegbaar~aff58082/.

 [16] CBS News. “Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte and His Entire Cabinet Resign over Child Welfare Scandal.” CBS News, CBS Interactive, 15 Jan. 2021, www.cbsnews.com/news/dutch-government-cabinet-mark-rutte-resign-child-welfare-scandal/.

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Jammu and Kashmir is a region bordered between India and Pakistan and has been in conflict since British rule. Both the nations claim the mountainous valley to be part of their respective nations and thus has been in an ever long political dispute (Ishfaq-ul-Hassan, 2018). For the longest time, Kashmir has been a victim of terrorism, unstable political situation and to top that, infrastructure has also been one of the major issues. The difficult terrain of Kashmir makes it especially challenging for construction and thus has been lagging when compared with most of the other states. Kashmir was for a long time, the princely state and the only Muslim majority state which joined India in 1947. Both India and Pakistan have thereon captured parts of Kashmir but are still in a tiff to have a bigger portion of the state.

An Overview of the Infrastructure Scenario of Kashmir

Infrastructure in Kashmir which includes health, education, tourism, industrial development has lagged for an exceptionally long time.  A survey of the Union Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation has shown that Jammu and Kashmir have the poorest sanitation facilities compared to the other states.  It is also important to note that the majority of the population still live in rural areas so the health and education infrastructure is not still as developed as it should be (Pandey, 2019). The rural areas lack private schools and the government schools are also in a bad state. Poor school infrastructure is one of the important reasons for the low literacy rate of the state. Several surveys conducted on the schooling facilities of Jammu and Kashmir have shown that due to lack of proper infrastructure, the students are made to sit on the floors, they do not have proper sanitation facilities in those schools etc. The buildings of the schools are in a worn-out state and on top of that, the 2014 floods in Jammu and Kashmir have damaged no less than 1400 schools (Digital, 2019). This leads to higher dropout rates in the state. Another important issue faced is that most of the schools do not have electricity. These infrastructural problems have been identified over the years and even though the government did put in efforts to resolve these issues, the condition of infrastructure in the state has not improved to a large extent.

As more and more tourists turn up each year, the pressure on the mountains is increasing at an alarming rate and poor infrastructure can cause unforeseen disasters if not taken care of immediately.

Why Article 370 Was a Cause of Concern?

According to Article 370 which was drafted by the then Chief Minister of Kashmir, other than a few areas of national concern like defence, foreign affairs, communication and finance, the central government had to take the consent of the state government to apply any laws or policies in Jammu and Kashmir. This article was made to be permanent and henceforth even more stringent. In simpler terms, the people of the state did not fall under the same rules as the rest of the country and lived by the rules of the state, hence given the status of special autonomy (Jaitley, 2016). This also gave the state’s government, the power to decide who could have ownership of land, or who could and could not invest in the land of Kashmir. This led to a huge problem as people who did not belong to Kashmir, could not officially buy land. This in turn meant that there weren’t any major external investments coming to Kashmir. The Modi government has linked Article 370 as one of the major reasons for the state’s infrastructure remaining underdeveloped for an awfully long period of time. In August 2019, Article 370 was finally abolished (TNN, 2019).

All of this has led to a rise in the need for a planned and vast investment boost in infrastructure in Kashmir to look forward to a better and safer future.

Huge Infrastructure Boost on the Way

The central government has aimed to bring a huge infrastructural boost to Jammu and Kashmir. The objective of this investment is to generate employment and investment in the state. Jammu and Kashmir was officially divided into two federally controlled territories on Oct 31, 2019. The region mostly depends on tourism, handicrafts and farming and has suffered poor infrastructure for decades continuously.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi has agreed on an investment boost of $3.8 billion after scraping out article 370. This is done in the view of increasing investments in the territory and generating employment opportunities. 

Let us now look at the investment programs brought through this infrastructural boost:

1. There has been investment in an elevated Mass rapid transit system in Kashmir. Kashmir will have two Light Rail transit systems (LRTS). The LRTS I is a 17 km long corridor that connects Bantalab to Greater Kailash with 17 stations to be crossed. The LRTS II will be 6 km long that connects Udheywala to Exhibition Ground (Digital, 2019).
2. There are infrastructure plans are Srinagar which will have two corridors. It is a 12.5-km-long corridor I which will connect HMT Junction to Indra Nagar crossing 12 stations. The second corridor is a 12.5-km-long corridor II that will connect Osmanabad to Hazuri Bagh. In order to further develop Srinagar and Jammu, the Metropolitan Regional Development Authorities (MRDAs) have been set up. Satellite townships with 50,000 new houses each are being developed in Greater Srinagar and Greater Jammu. These new townships will have one million sq ft IT parks (Digital, 2019).
3.  In view of improving connectivity, there have been investments to develop the Bilaspur-Manali-Leh railway line. The corridor will help improve connectivity with Jammu Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. This railway line will be the world’s highest railway track and 465kms long. 52 per cent of the total 465 km length will pass through tunnels. The longest tunnel will be 27 km long. The total length of the tunnels is expected to be around 244 km (Digital, 2019).
4. The construction, operation and maintenance of 2-lane bi-directional Zojila Tunnel with Parallel Escape (Egress) Tunnel were approved during 2018 by the cabinet that excluded approaches on Srinagar-Leh section connecting NH-1A at Km 95.00 in Jammu & Kashmir. The 14 km-long tunnel will be India’s longest road tunnel and Asia’s longest bidirectional tunnel. This tunnel will be a sigh of engineering excellence considering the difficult terrain that it will be built on. The construction of this tunnel will provide all-weather connectivity between Srinagar, Kargil and Leh (Digital, 2019).
5. The Dal Lake will also be restored. The government has planned investment to improve and beautify the lake further. Srinagar and Kashmir are also set for new pollution free e-buses (Digital, 2019).

Possible Impact of the Infrastructure Boost on Kashmir’s Economy

The increase in public as well the private investment is looked forward to bringing a significant amount of income through Kashmir. The government is expecting to attract $5-6 million through these investment programs (ANI, 2020). As the Modi government was for long against the special status given to Kashmir, they now hope that the scraping out of Article 370 along with such a huge boost in the infrastructure will not only lead to a better life for the natives of Kashmir but will also help generate income to a very large extent.

The boost in infrastructure will lead to improvements in the tourism sector to a large extent. The tourism sector is one of the most important sectors of Kashmir. As every year, the number of tourists only rise, the infrastructure must be able to support the rising strengths, along with protecting the mountains and the ecology of the place (Vignesh Radhakrishnan, 2019).

The railway lines and corridors approved for construction will lead to better connectivity among the places which has been a major problem for a very long time. These large constructions were due for a long time and a properly planned and executed infrastructural project can generate employment as well as income for the long term.

The geographically difficult terrain makes it even more important focus on the infrastructure of the place for it being able to operate at its optimum capacity. The natives of Kashmir have been in distress for almost all their lives along with the fear of terrorism at any given time (IBEF, 2020). The beautiful landscape has a lot of potential for generating income and employment for its people. And this huge infrastructural boost will hopefully help in attaining that potential along with maintaining an adequate ecological balance.

Conclusion

The debate on stabilizing the economy of Kashmir has been a highlight for decades now. However, with this infrastructural boost on the way and the projects taken up by the government, there seems to be some light at the end of years of the dark tunnel.

Bibliography

Infrastructure boost for Kashmir! From highest railway line to longest tunnel, check upcoming projects. (2019). Times Now.

Ishfaq-ul-Hassan. (2018, January 23). Jammu and Kashmir: Infrastructure development gets massive boost; funds for new bridges, tunnels, highways earmarked. Retrieved from DNA: https://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-jammu-and-kashmir-infrastructure-development-gets-massive-boost-funds-for-new-bridges-tunnels-highways-earmarked-2577795

Digital, E. N. (2019, June 15). Infrastructure boost for Kashmir! From highest railway line to longest tunnel, check upcoming projects. Retrieved from ETNOWNEWS.COM: https://www.timesnownews.com/business-economy/industry/article/infrastructure-boost-for-kashmir-from-highest-railway-line-to-longest-tunnel-check-upcoming-projects/436943

Jaitley, A. (2016, 26 June). India needs $1.5 trillion for infrastructure development: Arun Jaitley. Retrieved from ZeeNews: https://zeenews.india.com/business/news/economy/india-needs-1-5-trillion-for-infrastructure-development-arun-jaitley_1900273.html

ANI. (2020, August 2). Kashmir gets infrastructure boost in higher education sector. Retrieved from yahoo!news: https://in.news.yahoo.com/kashmir-gets-infrastructure-boost-higher-043022239.html

Vignesh Radhakrishnan, S. S. (2019, August 7 ). Is Jammu and Kashmir underdeveloped as stated by Amit Shah? Retrieved from The Hindu : https://www.thehindu.com/data/where-does-jammu-and-kashmir-stand-in-comparison-to-other-states-in-key-indicators-of-growth-and-development/article28855512.ece

IBEF. (2020, November 17 ). Jammu And Kashmir Presentation And Economic Growth Report | IBEF. Retrieved from India Brand Equity Foundation : https://www.ibef.org/states/jammu-and-kashmir-presentation

Pandey, G. (2019, August 5). Article 370: What happened with Kashmir and why it matters. Retrieved from BBC News : https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-49234708

TNN. (2019, August 3). What is Article 370? Three Key Points . Retrieved from The Times of India : https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/What-is-Article-370Article-370/articleshow/35678708.cms

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