Though there has been a lack of political enthusiasm, the common threat of irking China and structural issues that have acted as obstacles for blossoming Indo-Taiwanese relations, Taiwan has engaged silently diplomatically in India. PM Narendra Modi and President Tsai Ing-wen, have engaged in furthering the bilateral relationship.

Contextualising the Indo-Taiwanese Relationship

The Indo-Taiwanese relations were almost non-existent for more than four decades after the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was recognised by India. Marking the beginning of their ‘unofficial’ ties,  in 1992, the Taiwan External Trade Development Council (TAITRA) set up a liaison office in Mumbai and, in 1995, India opened its representative office in Taipei and named it the India-Taipei Association (ITA) for economic engagement. In a month, Taiwan opened its office in New Delhi and called it the Taipei Economic and Cultural Centre (TECC). Now, the TECC offices are operational in Chennai, Kolkata, and Mumbai. Although they were not formal diplomatic missions, they do function as de-facto representatives of their respective governments and carry out activities like issuing of visas, carrying out trade and economic relations and facilitating people-to-people contacts. This was the beginning of bettering bilateral relations between India and Taiwan in the sphere of trade and commerce, development and research, science and technology, education, people-to-people contacts, and other related fields and thus, in the post Cold-War period, this marked an important watershed moment in the history of Indo-Taiwanese relationship. This was a pointer towards India’s ‘Look East Policy’, enunciated by the then Prime Minister, Narasimha Rao and was a marker of Taiwan’s pragmatic diplomacy.

Taiwan’s ‘pragmatic diplomacy’ is also known as ‘flexible diplomacy’ and ‘substantive diplomacy’ and focuses on enhancing its international profile and facilitating its external engagements by using ‘unofficial’ and ‘non-diplomatic’ channels in the broader economic and cultural arenas, without attempting conventional state-to-state diplomacy, so as not to invite ire from the PRC. New Delhi, in this context, has emerged as a significant factor for Taiwan’s substantive diplomatic practices. Given their shared concerns vis-à-vis China and the commonality of their democratic values, especially during the current strategic uncertainty, this seems like the perfect ripe moment to enhance relations between the two.

In 2014, Taiwan’s representative to India had attended PM Modi’s swearing-in ceremony, and in 2016, India carefully well thought-out sending a representative to President Tsai’s inauguration but eventually decided against it. Most countries, including India, have found it challenging to balance the political and strategic implications of fostering closer relations with Taiwan due to the uncertainty of China’s reaction, leading to a complex diplomatic maze. In this context, Taiwan’s New Southbound Policy (NSP) under Tsai Ing-wen seeks to expand links with countries across South and Southeast Asia with a great emphasis on building economic, investment and people-to-people ties, as well as a greater focus on India especially while New Delhi “acts east”. Given the swaying relationship between India and Mainland China, it is practical for India to shift towards greater stress on soft balancing by cultivating a fruitful relationship with Taiwan. The Indian government’s ‘Act East Policy’ provides for greater engagement between India and Southeast Asia, making Taiwan important for India’s future economic growth.

In terms of increasing economic and commercial engagement, the TECC and the ITA formalized an MoU in 2017 on the “Promotion of Industry Collaboration”, preceded by twenty-one MoUs signed earlier that year by Taiwan’s Chinese National Federation of Industries and the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry. In 2018, the first India-Taiwan Trade Forum was convened in Taipei with the Taipei World Trade Center inaugurating its New Delhi office in conjunction with the debut of the Taiwan Expo (a business exposition) in South Asia over the summer of 2018 with New Delhi serving as its inaugural venue. Despite all these developments on the economic front, there have been domestic and structural problems in formalising the relationship, especially due to New Delhi’s position on acknowledging the ‘One-China policy’. New Delhi has overall remained ambiguous on the matter and the investment and trade have remained relatively modest but there have been efforts to increase investment by Taiwanese firms in India and notable joint initiatives and manufacturing clusters have been proposed under the ‘Make in India’ campaign.

Upgrading the Relationship: QUAD Angle

The need of the hour for India is focusing on a practical and long term pragmatic approach for fomenting better ties with Taiwan. We have to strategically balance the ‘One-China policy’ of Mainland China (based on one country, two systems model) and cultivating a beneficial and normal relationship with Taipei. New Delhi should not use Taiwan as a pressure point or Achilles Heel against the PRC as this hampers India’s goals and Taiwan’s development. The focal point for bettering the Indo-Taiwanese relationship should be based on enhancing people-to-people, cultural and business exchanges rather than focusing on the government-to-government gimmicks. Education, tourism and technological innovations can leverage the relationship. India should actively engage with Taiwanese NGOs to create an impact over the coming years and focus on roping in an international networking capacity. Small and medium-sized enterprises too can act as significant job creation initiatives and serve as great vehicles to exchange knowledge and human capital. Taiwan can also help in meeting India’s agricultural modernisation needs and its recent support during the pandemic in healthcare facilities is a pointer in the direction of up-gradation of the relationship in a pragmatic understanding. This soft power diplomacy through developmental assistance, cultural, healthcare, academic and tourist exchanges will surely benefit and give a thrust to long term robust India-Taiwan relations.

There have been under-utilised opportunities in the bilateral relationship. New Delhi needs to engage in proper policy approach to benefit most from a healthy relationship with the core area of the Chinese economy. The reshaping of the relationship with Taiwan has not only been a prerogative of New Delhi, the other three members of the QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue): USA, Australia and Japan have also upgraded their relations with Taipei.

Taiwan is significant for the QUAD countries as it is the core area that can be used to deter Chinese aggression due to its strategic location and partnership with the QUAD countries would act as a diplomatic weapon for both parties against the belligerent Dragon’s ever-rising provocations. Moreover, it is an important source of information on China, as evidenced in the case of the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, the QUAD needs to protect Taiwan from diplomatic isolation and help it develop its military and defensive capabilities while also providing it opportunities for investment in a safe and incentive-based environment in the QUAD so that they can safely relocate their economic and investment ventures from Mainland China without incurring losses.

Conclusion

India needs to act in a strategic manner and shed its inhibitions and self-imposed restraint on engaging with Taiwan. The bilateral relationship is extremely rewarding if managed appropriately by both parties. They have to act more decisively and New Delhi has to formally acknowledge Taiwan as a development partner and the role it can play in steering the direction of Indo-Taiwanese relationship. It is an opportune moment, also thus for the QUAD to recognise Taiwan as a reliable partner and counter China’s growing footprint in South Asia that it wants to establish its hegemony over, through its bellicose and pugnacious ways.

References:

Karackattu, J. T. (2019). The Case for a Pragmatic India-Taiwan Partnership. Carnegie India.

Nagao, S. (2020, August 2). The Quad must strengthen and support Taiwan. Sunday Guardian Live.

Singh, D. T. (2019). The New Southbound Policy and India-Taiwan Relations. Vivekananda International Foundation.

Tien-Sze, F. (2014). Taiwan’s Relations with India: Issues and Trends. China Report.

Times Now Digital. (2020, October 10). Quad and beyond: Is it time for India to take a tougher stance on Tibet and Taiwan?

Featured Image Source: Google Images | Image by: Reuters

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The strategic importance of the Korean Peninsula has enacted as the bridge between Asia mainland and Japan. It was believed that dominance over the Korean Peninsula signified influence over East Asia. It was during 1876 that diplomatic ties between both the countries were established. The Sino- Japanese War fought during 1894- 1895 must be analyzed from the perspective of Japanese imperialism or ‘Empire of the East’ countering the notion of western imperialism. However, the latter is not the only form of imperialism. Clearly, the aim of the Japanese government was to exercise political and economic control. Public opinion supported this action and clearly believed that Japan should play a pivotal role in helping Korea to free itself from the clutches of China. On the other hand, Qing China during the 1880s espoused the necessity to dominate over Korea. It is indeed true that nationalism and the trajectory of civilization have an intimate relationship as can be clearly seen by the case of Japan. Both the countries emphasized on their narratives to point out the righteousness in their actions (Sook, 2011, p: 39-74). Clearly, the Japanese government had manipulated the public opinion towards its aggressive foreign policy. Japan engaged in the discourse of civilization or bunmei kaika to present itself as a progressive nation which saw the light of Westernization (Darua, 2001, p: 99- 130). This altering contour emerged during the reign of the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912).  However, Russia’s emergence as a threat to Japan pushed the latter to be protective about Korea which led to the Russo-Japan War in 1905. 

Colonization of Korea (1905- 1945): Etched in Korea’s Collective Memory

Russia’s defeat was the stepping stone for Japan as Korea was formally annexed and become a part of the Japanese empire in 1905. Korea remained colonized till 1945 after which she was freed from Japan’s clutches with the latter’s defeat in the Pacific War. It was in 1912 that the Japanese Governor-General propagated laws that allowed the Japanese people to have ownership of land in Korea. A resettlement program was introduced by the government wherein many Japanese families settled in Korea before the end of the First World War. A large scale displacement took place. Additionally, 724,777 Korean workers had been sent to mainland Japan and Sakhalin as labourers in industries for mining, shipbuilding and construction. The Koreans were treated as second-class citizens and the Japanese government attempted to erase their culture by drawing up policies that would lead them to speak in the language of the colonizers. It was believed that Korean history and geography books were burned down by a nationwide search as well as confiscation of books of its independence and biographies of its national heroes was conducted by the government.

Not only that, gender-based violence on the Korean women was emerging as a disturbing issue during the Second World War. 20,000 Korean and Asian women were trafficked in military brothels to serve as ‘comfort women’ to the Japanese soldiers during the Asia-Pacific war. Comfort stations had been established in Indonesia, Indochina, Thailand, Okinawa, Korea and Taiwan. The women were treated as forced sexual slaves and must be analyzed from the perspective of gender-based violence. On the other hand, Japan had been the signatory of the International Convention for the Suppression of Traffic in Women and Children of 1921, yet Korea and Taiwan did not come under its purview. (Min, 2003, p: 938-957) The terminology of jugun inafu or comfort women was coined by the Japanese Government officials to cloak the reality of sexual slavery. Women who rebelled were brutally beaten up, raped and tortured.  It took 20 years before the former Korean President, Park Chung- Hee had agreed to normalize ties with Japan as collective memory etched on to its horrifying history.

Changing Contour of Republic of Korea and Japan Ties

The relations between South Korea and Japan can be examined from the point of view of a former suzerain state and colonizer since the 19^th century. Japan had argued that by the treaty of 1965 with South Korea, the former has provided compensation of $9.5 million for its sexual slavery as well as apologized in 1993. It was in 1952 that the first territorial dispute emerged between South Korea and Japan. Although Tokyo came under the jurisdiction of Korea, it had been administered by the latter for 41 years.  Kim Young- Sum’s Government declared the construction of a wharf facility in 1996 which was protested by the Hashimoto Government of Japan. However, on the face of North- Korean Teapeo- Dong Missile Crisis, Republic of Korea, President Kim and Japanese Prime Minister, Obuchi in 1998 signed the Joint Declaration and Action for a New Korea- Japan partnership in the 21st century. It was in 2015 that the former Foreign Minister of Japan, Fumio Kishida offered a formal apology and the Japanese Government stated that it would establish a Reconciliation and Healing Center which would care for the victims of sexual violence.  As Korea was in the process of democratization, civic organizations such as the Association of War Victims and Bereaved Families of Korean’s and Citizens Coalition for Economic Justice insisted that their Government must bring out a resolution to the colonial problems faced in South Korea. However, it cannot be denied that Japan was heralded as an economic partner. The post- Cold War period witnessed shifts in Korea- Japan relationship as security cooperation between USSR, North Korea, China and on the other hand, Japan, Republic of Korea and the USA broke down. Nonetheless, it cannot be forgotten that Japan and South Korea have espoused an anti-community narrative which is significant in their alliance as constructivism argues. These countries distinguish themselves from the other or Communism in this regard which is rooted in the perception of the self and other. The alliance is established when North Korea emerges as a common threat that leads them to shift from friction. It is imperative that the norms or a common ground must be shared for cooperation to flourish. Adding to that, the alliance did not last very long when in 2010 South Korea recalled the ambassador to Tokyo to protest against the approval of the Japanese Government of middle school textbooks written by the Society for Making New History Books, a Right- Wing intellectual group that aimed to conceal the atrocities of Japan’s wartime history. (Cho, 2008, p: 2-117) It clearly glorified Japanese militarism and fueled anti- Japanese sentiment in Korean public opinion. South Korean domestic policies have the impact of post-colonial history. The General Security of Military Information Agreement (GSOMIA) had been signed in 2016 which allowed Seoul and Japan to exchange information on North Korean missile which was supposed to expire in November. Ties experienced a downward spiral after the Supreme Court of South Korea in 2018 had ordered Japanese Firms to pay reparation for mobilizing Korean men and women as forced labours. Japan responded in July by removing South Korea from its list of trading partners as well as curbing exports namely fluorinated polyamides, photerists and hydrogen fluoride which are pivotal to the former’s semiconductor industry. The decision of not renewing the GSOMIA was upheld by Moon Jae’s government. The trade war that had been declared by both the countries has been perceived as a warning sign for USA and fear looms of the trilateral alliance breaking down.  

Portrayal of Japanese Media House Towards the Issue of Comfort Women

Journalism plays a pivotal role in bringing the truth to the public, yet this is determined by the coverage of the issue and if its portrayal is influenced by Government representation. ‘Sorrowful Homecoming’ was a Documentary which was released by the Korea Center of Investigative Journalism in 2016 that contained interviews of Korean women who were treated as sex slaves. This documentary had been created to raise awareness of the brutality done by the Japanese Imperial Army on Korean women and reconstruct the past human abuses. This has played an important role in building the collective memory of South Korea.  (Runquist, 2020, p: 2-17) On the other hand, Hirayasu Minzo, the Executive Editor of the Japan Times had criticized Reuters for not taking into account Japan’s viewpoint of colonization and refused to call comfort women as victims neither did he view Japan’s annexation of Korea as brutal.  Clearly, the Japan Times had refused to portray the horrifying Human Rights Violations that had occurred under the Meji regime in fear that it would be perceived as anti- Japanese by Shinzo Abe’s Government as it needed revenues from companies to survive and therefore had utilized the usage of such terminology. Although, Minzo had denied that his stance had altered due to external pressure, the fear of Abe’s Government ceasing the functioning of the paper could be viewed as one of the motives behind such an action. Indeed, the banner was, “All the news without fear or favor” has proved to be a farce as the truth has been denied. This has played a pivotal role in accentuating differences between the two countries. 

USA’s Role in South Korea-Japan Ties

The USA had perceived South Korea as its bulwark against Communism during the Cold War era. Yet, it cannot be denied that she built the foundation for democracy and it was the path that the Republic of Korea walked on. It was in 1953 that the Mutual Defense Treaty between the USA and the ROK was signed when Korean War had come to an end. The fervour to renew this alliance was pushed by George Bush’s Government during the 2000s. The USA, Japan and the Republic of Korea have been entangled in trilateral cooperation as North Korea’s advancement of nuclear missiles and China’s growing aggressiveness have led to the development of this alliance as these three countries share the standpoint of security. Nevertheless, this alliance has been embedded in the USA’s foreign policy. Nonetheless, an agreement between the Korean President, Park Geun- Hye and Japanese Prime Minister, Shinzo Abe was reached on 28^th December 2015 which could not have been possible without the pivotal role played by Obama’s administration which focused on the policy of “Rebalance to Asia”.

Conclusion

It is imperative for the Trump administration to sustain the trilateral cooperation as the ties between The ROK and Japan experience significant shifts due to the disturbing colonial past and atrocities embedded in the history of South Korea. As China’s aggressiveness becomes a warning sign for the USA as the ever so globalized world witnesses a re-emerging dawning Cold War era, the alliance can become the foundation for resistance if the economic partnership is facilitated. However, it must be kept in mind that the relationship of the Republic of Korea with Japan has been defined by the history of colonialism and collective memory.

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Bhutan is a Leading Power in Promoting Environment Conservation

As the dominant powers of the world in 21^st century are scrounging ways to halt forest depletion, Bhutan has become the first nation of the world to design specific constitutional obligations for the people to preserve the environment. As per the legislation, atleast 60 percent of the nation must remain under forest cover mandatorily at all times.

There Are No Traffic Lights in Bhutan

In case you visit Thimpu, the capital of Bhutan, then don’t worry about flouting traffic rules because there are no traffic lights to mediate the traffic. Instead of the usual red, yellow and green signals, there are traditional outposts at the intersection on the roads. At these traditional outposts, a policeman stands, mediating the traffic manually, because Bhutanese prefer to have things in a much traditional way.

Here Happiness is Valued Over Money

Bhutan is one of those rare nations of the world where the quality of life is of utmost importance. There Gross Happiness index is more important than Gross National Product. The former king of Bhutan, Jingme Singye Wangchuck, is accredited to introduce the tradition of introducing the Happiness Index. This concept highlights the importance of non- economic aspects in analysing the wellbeing of the people of a country.

Bhutan Has a Uniform Dress Code for Entire Country

Bhutanese are obliged to wear their traditional outfit to work as well as to the monasteries. Men wear a traditional outfit called gho, judo styled suit and women wear a kira, an ankle-length dress to work. As formal wear, men don a Kabney draped over the Gho. Kabney is a symbol that signifies different groups or professions, so there are different colours and designs of a Kabney for different professions and levels

Television and Internet Services Made Their Way Into Bhutan Lately in 1999

Bhutan has always considered television and internet as a corruptive force to its national and traditional Buddhist heritage. To this date, it has restricted contacts with the outside world. Bhutan had banned television in 1992. But as the country stood at the threshold of the new millennium, the former king Jingme Singye Wangchuck showed a green signal to the television and internet services.

No Smoking in Public Areas

Bhutan emerged as the first country on the planet which banned smoking and use of tobacco in any other form in public areas such as dzongs, chortens, parks, hotels, restaurants, markets, cinema halls etc. Public transports, such as buses, are covered under non-smoking zones. Any citizen found guilty of selling of using tobacco in public is subjected to imprisonment.

Halt Before You Eat

In case you end up as a guest at a Bhutanese house then be cautious not to start gulping down the morsel immediately after it is served! This is because in Bhutan there is a custom of refusing food for the first time when it is served. The country has an interesting list of customary rules to remember when eating. For example, when offered food, one is supposed to say meshu- meshu while covering your mouth as if refusing the offer. On the second or third offer, you can accept.

An Ode to Matriarchy

In Bhutan, feminism of its own kind blooms. Traditionally, it is women who inherit family property and after marriage, it is the husband who moves in with his wife in the latter’s ancestral place. In the realm of decision making, women have considerable involvement. Their participation is often as high as 70% at grassroots level. A considerable number of women are also present as landowners.

Bhutan- A Safe Haven for Tourists?

As Bhutan is deep-rooted traditionally, culturally and spiritually in Buddhism which propounds the values like love, compassion and peace, the crime rates here are comparatively low. There are fewer occurrences of grave crimes committed statistically.

Bhutanese Celebrate Birthday on New Year

Do you often keep forgetting people’s birthdays? Well if you do, then get acquainted with Bhutanese who do not have to worry about the birthday calendar. In Bhutan, Citizens turn a year older on January 1st of each year. In case they forget their special day due to illiteracy, the government ensures that they do not miss the celebration on the new year. They give more relevance to year than month or date which has given birth to the tradition.

To Conclude…

Bhutan has emerged as one of the stalwarts leading the battle of environmental sustainability. It has emerged as a nation which stands apart from the crowd in terms of the laws and enactments passed by the government. Moreover, what makes this event special is that all these measures have contributed to an increase in the bar of living of the people in general wherein each citizen leads a contended and satisfied life.

Even though these rules and regulations might sound restrictive and bizarre to ordinary people, the Bhutanese have tremendous respect and reverence towards these customs and traditions. They have accepted their land, religion and the constitution with open arms. Even though the tourism industry has boomed in this serene country, there is a lot more left to explore its culture, traditions and natives. Thus this tiny Himalayan kingdom situated amidst misty mountains still remains an enigma for the larger world

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Historical Context

Observations have shown that with the onset of the Age of Discovery in Europe, increased interest of Russia and China in Central Asia somewhat led to the breaking away of India’s connections with the region. Even after Independence, India’s foreign policy majorly focused on its immediate neighbours, or solidarity-based relations with the African countries, or even robust economic ties with Russia — but, the partitioning of the Indian subcontinent and the distancing of the region geographically did play a role in the deterioration of the relations with the region from India.

Further, in the post-Cold War era, after the Soviet Union split Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan in the 1990s, India took upon the task of developing its relations with the resource-rich region while also undertaking its own domestic economic reforms of bringing about liberalisation, privatisation, and globalisation. Former Indian Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao visited four out of the five republics – Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in 1993, followed by Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan in 1995. In addition to the collective values that India shared with the countries, collective development and economic growth, as well as formulating approached to combating common threats such as terrorism, religious extremism, and crime that these nations shared with India. A few experts also believe that the stage which was set by these conversations was even reflected in India’s Look North policy of recent times. 

Despite the historical links with the Central Asian Economies and India moving quickly to establish diplomatic ties with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan after their emergence as independent countries almost three decades ago, trade has not grown beyond $2 billion, with them. In recent years, foreign-affairs analysts have begun observing what they call the “New Great Game” in Central Asia — Russia, the US, European Union (EU), China, Turkey, Iran and India are all trying to assert their power and hegemony in the region. Not only does the region provide for a large market, but it also has prospects for developing hydropower, fossil fuel resources, and other lucrative prospects. According to experts, India, for its part, has so far chosen to take the ‘constructivist’ approach. This entails a strategy of, interests are not solely based on economic or strategic benefits but attempt to involve an intersectional and even culture-oriented involvement.

Current Developments

India’s continued interest in Central Asia can be attributed to the geopolitical relevance of the region due to three factors — Chinese presence and influx in the region through its expansionist infrastructure projects like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a continued historical context of Russia’s dominance in the region, and the overall regional security dynamic. Keeping these in mind, India had unveiled its Connect Central Asia Policy in Bishkek in 2012 in order to draw attention to the expansion of the region’s economic interests in congruence with India’s plans of integrating its external neighbourhood.

The lack of connectivity of India with the region of Central Asia has been a long withstanding issue in this context. For instance, the long-delayed Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) pipeline, backed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), was first proposed in the mid-1990s and all four actors officially signed an intergovernmental agreement in 2010. But, since then, the project has been stalled due to the status of Afghanistan and mistrust between India and Pakistan.

To combat this connectivity gap, India has undertaken positive action in the past as well quite recently. India, Iran and Russia signed the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) agreement which aimed to offer connectivity between India and Central Asia through Iran. As is noted by this resource, while the INSTC is routed via Iran’s Bandar Abbas port, India has also explored the possibility of connecting with Central Asia via Iran’s Chabahar port and thereafter overland corridors passing through Afghanistan. The importance bestowed by India to the Chabahar port, despite the uncertainties which the US-Iran tensions bring to the conversation, can be accorded by the budgetary allocation to the project, which is amounting to INR 1 Billion in 2020-21 announcement.

Way Forward

Since China has been able to leverage its geography, finances and population to ensure that its projects can contribute toward making its dream of a new and improved Silk Road a reality, India is also committed to expanding the scope of its economic relations with the region. India has immense potential in developing small and medium scale industries in the region which is presently being provided through India’s program of ITEC (Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation). The ITEC programme covers information technology, management, journalism, diplomacy, entrepreneurship, and banking. New Delhi also signed the Strategic Partnership Agreements (SPA) with three of the five nations of the Central Asian Economies — Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan — in order to stimulate defence cooperation and deepen trade relations.

As a report in a Russian newspaper observed, “Indian presence in the region should balance the growing Chinese influence and prevent it from becoming the region of Beijing’s undivided dominance.” This idea can be brought to effect by India by leveraging its membership at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.

India and the Central Asian Economies can prioritize energy, pharmaceuticals, automotive, agro-processing, education, urban infrastructure and transport, civil aviation, IT and tourism sectors to strengthen economic links. The Central Asian economies and India have had a long history of association which can be efficiently revived to mutual benefit by the means of strategic and economic cooperation and connectivity, both notions that can be leveraged by the stakeholders in a post-pandemic world.

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KYOTO – THE CULTURAL CENTRE

While the rich culture of Japan is prevalent throughout the entire nation, the city of Kyoto in the southwest of the country is regarded as the cultural centre, by the Japanese and foreigners alike, perhaps owing to its historical roots. Kyoto was the capital of the country until the latter half of the 19^th century, and therefore people often perceive it as the birthplace of the Japanese culture. Home to about 2000 temples and shrines along with imperial palaces, and other ancient buildings, it was within this city that several distinct cultural institutions of Japan, like, tea ceremony (cha-no-yu) and flower arranging (ikebana), the theatrical arts of Noh, Kabuki and traditional dance, were initiated and spread to other parts of the country. Kyoto also has housed masterpieces of calligraphy, sculpting, painting and architecture. The population in Kyoto still remains involved in such activities, creating masterpieces that are deemed as national treasures, conducting tea ceremonies, and having an active theatrical life with annual processions by Noh performers, etc. The three festivals that the citizens celebrate in great grandeur and pride are Aoi in May, Gion in July and Jidai in October.

Aoi Festival

Gion Festival

Jidai Festival

The Japanese population along with the whole world, has embraced the culture of Kyoto, which can be implied by the recent popularity of the phrase, “Sekai no Kyoto” (The World’s Kyoto). The popular tourist destinations like the many number of Shrines and temples (Fushimi Inari Shrine, Gingaku – Ji Temple, Kinkaku – Ji temple, etc ), the Arashiyama Bamboo grove, and others such as Gion and Pont-cho street attract tourists from all over the world, and even the native Japanese who try to go to the city atleast once in their lives.

RELIGION – Buddhism and Shintoism

Japan has seen the growth of two major religions, i.e, Buddhism which was brought about by foreign forces and the native religion of Shintoism, both of which have peacefully co-existed. However, the  division between followers of Buddhism and Shintoism is far from watertight, as most often, those Japanese who follow Buddhism, sometimes also declare themselves as followers of Shinto. Therefore, any claims of the population being divided solely into Buddhists and Shintos do not hold.

Shintoism

Tori Gate

Fushimi Inari-taisha

Shinto, i.e, the way of the Gods (Kami) is the oldest religion in Japan and possibly the most followed, as evidence suggests that about 80% of the Japanese identify themselves as followers of Shinto. There are no historical evidences that suggest the identity of the founder of the religion, and a lack of sacred texts and any sort of formalized teachings, indicate the fact that unlike Buddhism, it’s not an organized religion. The cornerstone of Shintoism is the belief in Kami, i.e, the spiritual elements of nature that exist in waterways, trees, mountains, and geographical regions.  The only foundation of the religion in conclusion is therefore, reverence of peace and harmony, respect for all elements of nature and the belief that being in nature means a closer access to Kami.

How has Buddhism influenced Japanese culture?

The Great Buddha (Daibutsu) at Kōtoku-in, Kamakura, in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan

Buddhism which officially came to Japan around 525 BC, has been able to acquire a large following in the country, with about 90 million of the population identifying themselves as Buddhists. While the religion faced a certain conflict between pro-Buddhist and anti-Buddhism factions, it was successful in establishing its foundations in Japan and subsequently changed the political structure, technological fields and brought in a myriad of sophisticated cultural practices like dance, music, a new writing system and also Buddhist art, that have undoubtedly had a greater impact on the Japanese culture as a whole.

‘Matsuri’ – THE CULTURAL FESTIVALS OF JAPAN

A very important and lively aspect of Japanese culture, is the many number of ‘matsuri’ or the cultural festivals, which bring in cheerful spirits for the native population, who often enjoy the festivities wearing colourful and mostly, traditional clothes and getting involved in the activities the festivals are known for. Research suggests that Japan witnesses as many as 200-300 festivals in a year, all of which are big, fun and crowded events, and are deeply entrenched within the Japanese Culture.

These festivals which occur over the course of a year, differ greatly in terms of the season in which they occur.

SUMMER: The festivals in summer are known worldwide for their use of fireworks or what the Japanese call, Hanabi. These fireworks light up the sky in bright colours and the people often dressed in their Yukatas and Kimonos,  gather in large numbers to watch the show.

Summer Fireworks in Fukuoka

SPRING: In Spring, the Cherry blossoms or Sakura trees turn pink which in itself is a site of majestic beauty. The spring festivals are centered around these trees, where people from different regions come and enjoy activities under the cherry blossoms either in a park, a castle, etc. The Hirosaki Cherry Blossom Festival is perhaps one of the most famous of such festivals that are conducted in Japan.

Cherry Blossom Festival

Tokyo during spring

WINTER AND FALL: Besides Summer and Spring, cultural festivals of unique natures are also practiced in Winters and Fall. In winter, for instance, the Sapporo Snow Festival and Nozawa festival attract thousands of visitors and so does the Fujiwara Autumn Festival in fall.

Nozawa Fire Festival

The festivals, therefore, are of varied nature, some being calm and peaceful, where people visit shrines and temples, while others are lively events for the Japanese to enjoy with their loved ones.

What role have ANIME and MANGA played in Japanese culture?  

Anime, as the name suggests, is Japanese animation which is either hand-drawn or computer-animated. The diverse fan base of Anime, which is worldwide,is perhaps because of it’s very distinct characteristics that distinguish it from animation produced in any other parts of the world. Manga, on the other hand, are more like Japanese comics or Graphic novels which are read from right to left, while western comics can only be read left to right. Often, those mangas which are able to acquire a large fan base, like Naruto, One Piece, Dragon Ball, Haikyu, etc, are converted into anime. Both Anime and Manga, over the years have become a very crucial aspect of Japanese culture.                                            

Still from Grave of the Fireflies (1980)

Manga Comic

The unconventionality associated with anime and manga, is perhaps a contributor to it’s popularity among adults, and not just kids. These stories that are available in all genres like action, romance, slice of life, rom-com, supernatural, horror, etc, break the notion that anime is meant only for kids. The fan base remain hooked on each episode or chapter, due to the unpredictability of what might happen next.

In Japan, anime and Manga, has become a way of life for ‘Otakus’ (which however is an offensive word for the Japanese) a term used for those hardcore fans of these elements, to the extent that they give up their social lives and withdraw into their homes watching anime and playing video games. The emotional attachment to these forms of entertainment becomes evident when numerous instances of funerals held for anime characters come into light. But anime in Japan is not only limited to the private sphere. It’s presence is abundant everywhere, on trains, buses, advertisements, etc. Moreover, anime and manga also provide a deep insight into Japanese culture, in both covert and overt ways. Most animes have episodes dedicated to the cultural festivals, fireworks, cherry blossoms, otaku culture, Japanese way of living, tea ceremonies and so on. The town of Akihabara near Tokyo, is believed to be the Anime centre, the streets of which are lined with numerous anime shops selling anime merchandise of various kinds. There are also many themed cafes like maid and butler cafes, which attract a lot of tourists. Even outside Akihabara, it is not uncommon to find many huge or life-size statues that give tribute to anime characters and their creators. Anime themed parks, which are a sight of awe for tourists as well as the natives are also abundant in Japan, the most famous of them being the Naruto theme park, Attack on Titans theme park, etc. Often, streets of Japan are also lined with cosplayers, impersonating characters from famous animes. In fact, cosplaying is also an important part of Japanese culture, which has immense importance, as evident by the numerous cosplay competitions held throughout the nation. Anime conventions are also likely events in Japan which are attended by Anime fans from Japan and all over the world.

TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE, CUISINE AND ATTIRE

Traditional Japanese Architecture is attributed to a distinct aesthetic, that can be attributed to some unique characteristics used in the making of these homes. The dominant feature of traditional Japanese homes is wood, that is preferred in the making of the house over other materials such as stone, perhaps owing to the unpredictability brought about by earthquakes. Wood is respected by the Japanese to the extent that the wood in homes remain in their natural forms and is not concealed by paint. The doors in these houses are fusuma, or sliding doors while the windows are movable screens (shoji). The floors in Japanese houses are covered with tatami mats, made with straw, that along with the wood provides a distinct smell to the traditional Japanese houses. Outside the houses, are what may be called verandahs, which are a wooden extension to the house, which are often elevated from the ground, sometimes covered with shutters.

Japanese cuisine basically comprises of regional and traditional foods, and primarily focuses on combining steamed rice (gohan) which is their staple with one or more main and side dishes and miso soup or pickles. While this typically describes the traditional meal, there are also many other variants of food that the Japanese are known for like, Sushi, Ramen, tempura, Curry rice, Yakitori, etc.

Sushi

The traditional attires of Japanese men and women, like all other aspects of culture, are also varied. The Japanese Kimono is the most iconic and famous traditional piece of clothing in Japan. Yukata is another traditional attire, which is mainly dorned during summer, due to the breezy material, unlike Kimono which are reserved for more fancy and formal occasions. Other pieces of traditional Japanese clothing include Haori, Jinbei, Hakama, etc.

Traditional Japanese Clothing

Japanese women donning Kimono

INDIA AND JAPAN – THE CULTURAL TIES

India and Japan have continued to maintain strong cultural ties, ever since the arrival of Buddhism in Japan, from India. The countries have often engaged in mutual cultural exchanges and also follow some similar cultural traditions and ideas along with Buddhism, like the commitment to Democracy, pluralism, open societies, tolerance, etc. The Namaste India Festival which is held in Tokyo every year is aimed at realizing the agreement between the two countries about holding cultural festivals, on 2007, which marked the 50^th anniversary of the Indo-Japan cultural agreement. These festivals aim at bringing an insight of each country’s culture, that includes food, music, souvenirs, clothes, etc, to the other.

PM Narendra Modi with PM Shinzo Abe performing Ganga Arti in Varanasi

CONCLUSION

The above quote by Hector Garcia, in  ‘Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life’ therefore sums up the very dynamic and cheerful  Japanese culture, which has fascinated many souls over the years. Therefore, it wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that the Japanese culture which comes to life in it’s cultural festivals, anime, cuisine, architecture, an unbreakable link with nature and various other quirky things that people associate with Japan have been able to become an object of awe and interest for people all over the world.

“The Japanese are skilled at bringing nature and technology together: not man versus nature, but rather a union of the two.”

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Who hasn’t heard of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki incidents? Atomic bombs were detonated in these Japanese cities by the Allies during World War II in the year 1945. This led to mass destruction in the country. Over a million people were killed and these two bombings remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. 

Japan is renowned for its extraordinarily rapid economic growth in the 20th century, especially in the first several decades after WWII. Currently, the economy of Japan is the third-largest in the world in terms of nominal GDP. Although Japan is deficient in natural resources, it makes up for it by exporting technologically advanced goods and services since it has highly developed manufacturing and service sectors. Significant contributions have been made in the field of science and technology making it a global leader in the automotive and electronic industries. 

What’s most surprising about the economy of Japan is that even after being destroyed, Japan saw a GDP growth of 10% in the initial period after the war. Too good to be true, right?!  Let us dive deeper into the history of Japan’s economy to look at the factors that led to such a miraculous growth.

PRE WAR

Japan was considered a country that was rich in precious metals like gold, silver, and copper. But, by the time it became possible for Japan to extract such minerals, exports for those were banned. Japan enjoyed good trade relations with the Europeans because they were head over heels for Japanese craftsmanship and metalsmithing. It was also during the time trade flourished that Japan set its foot in the sea and prepared its warships. However, Japan went into a period of isolation in the 1600s and put significant regulations on foreign trade in order to eradicate the spread of Christianization. The economic growth was mild and stable during this period. Porcelain exports rose tremendously in the later period as the Chinese porcelain exporters were out of action. By the 19th century, the country began to open up. 

Major economic development included urbanization along with the diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The shipping of commodities increased. Sectors like banking and agricultural production witnessed expansion.  Moreover, Japan actively studied western sciences and techniques during this period with the main focus on geography, medical and physical sciences, art, etc. Economic developments of the prewar period began with the “Rich State and Strong Army“. The government also built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development along with adopting a Western education system and focusing on teaching the students with modern science, mathematics, and technology by hiring Westerners.

In a bid to promote industrialization, the government constructed several factories and shipyards that were sold to entrepreneurs at half their price. Such was the success of these businesses that the government emerged as a chief promoter of private enterprise, sanctioning a series of pro-business policies. 

POST WAR

After World War II, most of the industries in Japan had suffered greatly. However, the massive economic growth they achieved astonished the entire world. Industrial growth went up from 27.6% in 1946 to 350 % in 1960, with 1951 being the point that initiated recovery.

This happened primarily because of two major factors.

• The economic reforms brought in by the “Ministry of Industry”. The focus was shifted to the production of raw materials such as steel, coal, and cotton. Additionally, in an attempt to strengthen the workforce, Japan enhanced the inclusion and recruitment of female workers along with some other labor regulations.

• The outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. With the advent of the war, there was a huge demand for Japanese equipment owing to the logistical problems faced by the Korean military in getting supplies from the US. This was accompanied by an investment drive that laid the foundations for a long period of remarkable economic growth.

Since most of the industries were destroyed in the war, on rebuilding they were able to produce more efficiently. Along with these land reforms and mechanization were introduced that boomed agricultural productivity.

As can be seen from Fig. 1, the average real GDP growth in the 1960s remained to be 10%. This was achieved by focusing on the consumer and structural economy that focused on high quality technologically advanced products for domestic as well as foreign consumption along with improvement in transportation. The growth declined to 5% in the 1970s and continued to decrease significantly in the consecutive decades. After the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble, the economy came to a standstill in the 1990s, which came to be known as the Lost Decade. Real estate and stock markets were greatly inflated which led to stagnation and the country ran into massive budget deficits.

Quantitative easing was used by the Bank of Japan to expand the country’s money supply. However, it failed to induce any growth initially. Later, it began affecting inflationary expectations. In late 2005, the economy finally began its journey on a path of recovery. GDP growth rate that year averaged 2.8%. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption was credited to be the dominant factor of growth in this scenario.

Despite having interest rates touching zero, the quantitative easing strategy did not succeed in stopping price deflation. Thus, in July 2006, the zero-rate policy was ended but deflation had still not been eliminated. Nevertheless, the economy was able to turn over a new leaf in 2013 because of a smart strategy adopted by the Bank of Japan. In recent years, Japan has been the top export market for almost 15 trading nations worldwide.

Current Scenario

Japan has been facing a major problem of ageing and declining population. The current population of 126.5 million is predicted to decline to 100 million by 2050. This has severe repercussions for the country. Moreover, being an island country it has suffered significant losses due to tsunamis in terms of life as well as property. In addition to this, the tourism industry has not been able to attract many tourists and hence doesn’t earn as much foreign exchange as it should. Besides, since the country’s terrain is not fit for agriculture, it has to import most agricultural products. Moreover, with the current COVID situation and factories being shut down, the country has crashed into another economic crisis after World War II.

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The US-China Dispute

The Red Dragon and Uncle Sam have a lengthy history of being at loggerheads. The US initially refused to recognise China as a sovereign state and indulged in many ministrations to displace the latter’s communist roots.  It was only in the 1970s that diplomatic relations took flight with the US acceptance of One China Policy. Still, their relations were fraught with friction, especially over human rights. When China entered the world economy and began opening up its economy, its engagement enhanced, with China going on to become America’s largest trading partner. With a few hiccups, the relationship seemed to be aiming for cooperation. However, it all radically changed in 2018 when the Trump government’s tariffs targetted China, setting off a vicious trade war that is still ongoing. What started out as a trade dispute couple of years ago has now turned into a full-blown show of might, branching into other areas as well.

In late 2018, the US signaled its hardline approach towards the eastern giant. The Huawei issue only intensified the same, and the US has done everything in its power to kick the Chinese MNC out of the 5G race on charges of spying. By 2019, the trade war had intensified, with both countries levying hefty tariffs on the other, and placing various other sanctions as well. Early 2020 saw the signing of a trade deal which provided a brief breather for the economic world, but the respite period remained short. The onset of the Covid-19 pandemic sent the global economy tumbling. America faced multi-faceted effects: its capitalist system suffered a downfall and the health system was brought to its knees. This tension had the hegemon accusing China of mismanaging the pandemic and causing harm to the world, eventually pulling out of WHO due to the latter’s support of China. China obviously, did not take the accusations well. But it was the new security law imposed in Hong Kong that proved to be the last nail in the coffin. Trump went on to strip the city of its special status, reducing its credibility as a world economic and financial hub. China accused America of interfering in its domestic affairs, and everything has been downhill since.

The Asian Playground

Due to the deterrence that comes with two giants battling each other, the countries are unlikely to engage in an all-out war, even if relations have diminished to a new low. Their historical animosity played out in the Asian region much like the proxy wars that dominated the global landscape during the Cold War. Both nations have tried to expand the ambit of their influence by espousing Asia-centric policies. Obama’s presidency saw a more active role in the region coupled with an enhanced military presence. China on the other hand relies on its geo-economic power to bind Asia to it. The Belt and Road initiative, the String of Pearls approach, ADB Bank and increasing economic investment promises financial advancement for the region. South Asia in one of the most populous regions in the world, yet intra-regional trade is quite fragmented (just 5%), which reduces the economic benefits it can reap. Thus China’s meteoric economic rise has proved to be a fundamental driver of economic growth. 

US security cover coupled with economic benefits from China has helped in the advancement of many countries, resulting in the expectation that Southeast Asia will become the fourth-largest economy in the world, overtaking the European Union and Japan by 2050. Therefore for Southeast Asian nations, especially the ASEAN market is a key area for both America and China. The US is now frantically looking to shift Asian loyalties to its side as it perceives the rising Chinese aggression and economic strength as a threat.  That is why it has taken a strong position against China’s assertions in the South China Sea and has tried to play on the insecurities of the latter’s neighbours regarding the same. This ‘harbinger of justice’ role has helped the nation gain influence in the region, which was a difficult task because of China’s proximity to it. America is also banking on its military and technological investment to gain the region’s unequivocal support. 

Since the beginning of the Sino-American trade war, Southeast Asia has been an undisputed winner on account of the benefits it is reaping. The high American tariffs on Chinese goods have led to a shift in manufacturing processes to the region. In 2019 Chinese acoustics manufacturer Goertek announced that it will shift its Apple’s Airpods wireless headphones production to Vietnam because of the ongoing trade dispute. Similarly, Cambodia has bagged bicycle production for a high-value US firm, and Thailand has become a hub of vehicle assembly plants. According to Forbes, a survey of U.S. firms manufacturing in China found that 18.5% had either moved production to Southeast Asia or were considering it.

Usually, ASEAN countries have been able to maintain a delicate balance between American geopolitics and Chinese geo-economics. But as both countries increase the heat, it is difficult to predict if the future will force the region to choose sides. For now, Southeast Asia is having a good ride!

The Indian Factor

India has been facing a sudden increase in tensions with China too. The border dispute has led to a fresh impasse, the first one since Doklam. But this time the costs have been higher, with multiple skirmishes and martyred soldiers lining the situation. In response, India, akin to America, has tried to economically isolate China by banning 59 Chinese apps and making calls for being ‘Aatmanirbhar’. But it is easier said than done, for the mammoth amount of trade between the two is skewed in China’s favour. Some would think it is natural for India to lean on the US, especially in view of the latter’s vocal support of India in the afore-mentioned border dispute. It is to an extent true too: India has gained around $755 million in US exports since the trade war disrupted relations. India is also the only country capable of countering China’s influence in a disintegrated Asia. It also has a large youthful population capable of rapid mass production which it could use to its advantage in view of the trade war. 

But the path is not as smooth as it looks. There are multiple factors that weigh India down as compared to Southeast Asia when it comes to being business-savvy. The country has a massive supply of cheap labour but lags glaringly in other areas. Poor infrastructure to accommodate foreign production, inadequate technology, complicated labour laws and red-tapism of a sloth-like bureaucracy have tainted the country’s hopes of attracting foreign investment. That is why despite improving its Ease of Doing Business rankings by 37 places, it still is only the ninth-largest trading partner of the USA. Its tedious land-acquisition laws coupled with hostile neighbourhoods have not done much to attract investors. In addition to this, India’s decision to not be a part of the trade agreement with ASEAN called Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) has put it on the back foot. It passed up on a chance to economically seal the deal with the fastest growing economic region and its markets.

In view of these shortcomings, Southeast Asia proves to be a better region to direct investments to. In fact, India is not extremely affected by the trade war as it has not gained much from it. 

Conclusion

The United States of America and China are the two hegemons that balance the current multi-polar world. This grandiosity of sorts, coupled with their mutual interdependence in terms of trade and technology makes it difficult for them to inflict real-time damage on each other, or indulge in an all-out confrontation. That being said, the current animosity between the two is different from their usual spats. In this pandemic-riddled world their tensions have been aggravated by blame-game, allegations of spying, erosion of Hong Kong’s democratic rights and of course, the rejuvenated trade-war. Many Asian countries have benefitted from this fallout and gained increased investment from the US and more come-hither offers by China. It is now to see how their balancing act will progress. However, India has a long way to trudge before it can fully reap the benefits of the clash and needs to work on its internal infrastructure and policies to attract any advantages.

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Over the years, not only has the United Nations solved conflicts but has also catered to humanitarian crises, a number of which have been successful. The Polio Eradication Initiative led by WHO in India has been one of the most effective health campaigns carried out by WHO. In 2009, India had the highest number of polio cases in the world. This public health emergency was especially challenging to tackle due to India’s population density, poverty rate and poor sanitation. Given the rising cases of polio and the challenges the Indian government was faced with, the WHO’s intervention in 2010 made a lasting impact. 

 In the procedure of eliminating Polio, the WHO introduced bivalent oral polio vaccines, the implementation of which was excellently supported by the Indian government. The prompt response to this led to a nationwide inoculation drive and polio vaccines became a must and were being heavily implemented in every state through micro-planning. Despite the complexities of reaching out to every section of the society in a diverse country like India and refusal of getting vaccinated the UN subsidiary in amalgamation with the Indian government led to a sharp fall in the numbers of reported polio cases. 

Although the UN has made crucial contributions towards the betterment of certain aspects, it has, however, failed to prevent war in some instances and has had counterproductive peacekeeping missions. The Democratic Republic of Congo has been victim to the UN’s inefficiency and sub-par performance during the peacekeeping mission set out by the UN for the DRC. 

In 1999 the UN started operation MONUC and sent peacekeeping forces to Congo due to its civil war and the rising threat to human rights it posed. The Congolese Civil War gained traction from its neighbouring states, but the most vital role was played by the Rwandan Army. to counter the same Congo and the UN pledged to remove insurgents in return for the withdrawal of Rwandan troops. In spite of this Rwanda did not comply since they felt the pledge was not upheld and went on to order the UN to withdraw its peacekeeping forces. 

Shockingly, the UN complied and withdrew its forces from the region. Resultantly, the Rwandan Army’s militaristic involvement in Congo increased and caches of weapons in the DRC were found in the following year. Rooting from the UN’s very explicit inaction and resistance towards changing the status quo, this mission by the United Nations is considered one of the most consequential and colossal failures of the organisation. 

Regardless of its performance, the UN has undoubtedly played a key role in shaping world order and contributing to changing the balance of power. Over the years IGO’s have become a platform for states to posture themselves in the international arena and flex their muscles. While the realist beliefs refute the importance of non-state actors and any means of power that is not militaristic or economic in nature, there has been a steady growth in the investments made in the United Nations due to its magnitude. 

China being one of the most prominent states to visibly express their interest in investing and following through has definitely added to its soft power and sphere of influence. China is now the second-largest contributor in financial investments in the form of troops to the UN amongst G77 countries. In 2015 Xi Jinping pledged to supply 8,000 peacekeepers and after withholding that pledge, they committed to a 10 year $1 billion China-UN Peace and Development Fund for peacekeeping operations.

China’s sudden involvement and constant support towards the UN, financially, is no coincidence. By gradually becoming a salient aspect of the mechanism and functioning of the United Nations, China has gained an upper hand in all the conflicts and human rights violations attached to it. Taiwan’s position as a state and not being recognised as a nation-state by the United Nations, now seems far from happening due to the UN’s dependency on China for financial aid. 

2020 being the UN’s 75th anniversary and still being a major stakeholder in the system of states and their functioning, the aforementioned arguments and cases are a pure reflection of the United Nations work over the years and paints a clear picture of its performance and potential actions in the future. 

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