News channels these days, instead of conveying accurate information, focus on adopting means to get more viewers and raise their TRPs. In order to do so, they publish or telecast an overwhelmingly larger proportion of negative news items. As studies in the USA and Australia have shown, about 90% of the news is negative, a huge proportion of them being sensationalist reports. Around 74% of the news stories about Australian indigenous health were negative, while a mere 15% of the stories were classified as positive and 11% as neutral. (Stoneham et al, 2014).

Ever wondered why this is so? Studies have proven that humans show what is known as the negativity bias or negativity effect in information processing. This means that negative events or information are more likely to draw our attention. In a study by Kätsyri J. (2016), gaze tracking, recognition memory, cardiac responses, and self-reports were used to track the attention of 38 participants in a controlled environment. It was found that negative tweets gained more attention and were viewed for longer durations. One of the best instances of this bias was seen when the ‘City Reporter’, a Russian website, lost two-thirds of its readership when it decided to publish only positive news stories for a day!

Framing Effect

News channels and publishers tend to, in fact, not just “report” the news, but make sure they spice it up appropriately to garner and sustain people’s attention. How a particular situation is narrated, that is positive or negative framing, also has an effect on a person’s response (Tversky and Kahneman, 1981). Negative words such as “never”, “die”, “worst”, which have proved to be more eye-catching, is used more by the media, particularly in headlines. There is also an association between gender and valence of the information: women have shown better memory and higher stress reactivity in response to negative news as compared to men (Marin et al, 2012).

Picture Superiority Effect

The media tries its best to evoke emotional reactions through its reports, and to maximize the effect, often uses disturbing and strong images. Everything – from images of dead bodies lying in a pool of blood to detailed descriptions of murder or terrorist attack – is reported sensationally, in an exaggerated manner. Be it Sushant Singh Rajput’s pre-autopsy dead body or gallows in Tihar jail, one can see all such images floating on news channels and social media within minutes of the occurrence of an incident. The reason behind excessive usage of such images is the phenomenon termed as the ‘picture superiority effect’, which means humans tend to remember and recall pictures much better than words. Such images, therefore, are bound to elicit strong negative emotions and hence be remembered by people.

The negativity bias and the framing and picture superiority effects, all combine to cause a range of physiological and psychological effects on people’s minds.

Physiological Effects of Negative News Reporting

Excessive exposure to negative information or news can cause the brain to perceive it as a threat, and as a result, might activate the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic nervous system. Stress hormones – adrenaline and cortisol – are released in response, which might result in physiological effects of stress such as fatigue and sleeplessness.

Psychological Effects of Negative News Reporting

As compared to positively-valenced or neutral news items, negatively-valenced news also causes heightened anxiety and a bad mood (Johnston & Davey, 1997). As a result, people tend to worry excessively about themselves and their near and dear ones. This, in fact, leads to more problems: people are tempted to check the news repeatedly, which heightens the anxiety and stress, thus forming a never-ending cycle.

Stress is the root cause of a variety of psychological disorders. A positive correlation was found between the number of hours an individual watched negative news and the amount of distress and the possibility of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Riehm et al, 2020). Moreover, for people who have personally experienced or been victims of any of the events being reported, the negative images and words used tend to elicit flashbacks of their own past experiences, thus making their healing process all the more difficult. This is because of the self-reference effect, or the tendency of humans to remember and recall those events better which are personally relevant or related to themselves in some way. When exposed to arousing bulletins, people hence tend to relate the negative information to their personal contexts (Johnston & Davey, 1997).

Negative Reporting and COVID-19 Pandemic

In the current times, when the world is battling a pandemic and everyone is confined within their homes, with nothing more than a tv screen or a laptop to entertain themselves with, many people are facing one or the other form of social isolation. The effect of the same can be seen in the huge rise in the number of people who reported mental health issues or sought professional help. A 20% increase in mental illnesses has been observed since the beginning of the COVID-19 outbreak in India (Indian Psychiatric Society, 2020). Many people experience heightened levels of stress and anxiety as a result of watching or reading covid-related news. The figure below shows the sentiments evoked by various news headlines related to the pandemic, a vast majority (51.66%) of which evoked negative sentiments, while only 30.46% generated positive sentiments, and 17.87% were neutral (Aslam et al, 2020). The histogram depicting the sentiments, too, is weighted on the negative side.

With covid cases and related deaths reaching a new spike every day, news reporters, in a bid to reveal the mismanagement and failure of the government in handling the crisis, try to portray the situation as negatively as possible. Images and videos of hospitals running out of oxygen, people running around looking for hospital beds and plasma donations, crematoriums overflowing due to the rising number of covid-related deaths, and relatives weeping inconsolably, are traumatizing not just for those currently suffering from the disease, but also the ones who have won the battle against the virus. They fear being re-infected and do not feel safe even inside their homes. In fact, even those who have fortunately not contracted the infection are constantly worried and feel tempted to keep checking the news repeatedly. This may even lead to illness anxiety disorder and hypochondriasis amongst such people. Scarcity and unavailability of vaccines, masks, sanitizers, and protective equipment for frontline covid warriors is a huge cause of concern, leading to fear and anxiety amongst all people alike.

These images and reports haunt people round the clock, leading to nightmares, insomnia, and hypersomnia. Quite often, people wake up screaming, breathing heavily, or sweating excessively, and may even develop long-term sleep problems. About 15% of adult Indians reported some form of insomnia due to apprehensions and concerns related to the pandemic (Lahiri et al, 2021). As shown in the figure below, various factors such as higher age, isolation, generalized anxiety, and known co-morbid conditions were found to be correlated with increased levels of insomnia (Lahiri et al, 2021).

Studies have shown that this could also have long-term effects, leading to a decrease in the overall social interaction, with people being apprehensive about physical meetings even after the pandemic is over. Moreover, people could, in general, become more pessimistic about situations in life and their ability to handle them successfully. They might begin to view events more as a ‘threat’ than a ‘challenge’ since they would begin to feel that they are solely victims of the situation and have no control over it. Their sense of satisfaction with life might also decrease, along with a range of other effects.

Other Common Examples

This is just one of the countless examples we see every other day. Excessive coverage of celebrity suicides and deaths is another common example, the most recent one being the Sushant Singh Rajputs case, which was sensationalized and reported twenty-four-seven for several months following the claimed suicide. What the media did not realize was the effect this could have on young and vulnerable minds who considered this man as their role model. Consequently, a number of suicides of young adults were reported in several parts of the country within a few days following the SSR case. The excessive coverage of the incident hence triggered a series of suicides of ordinary people and celebrities alike, who were later found to be suffering from depression or other mental health issues and began to feel that suicide was a viable solution to their struggles.

Another common media practice is the focus on negative and corrupt political activities and rare reporting of any positive events and practices in the political arena. This has a negative effect on people’s overall belief in the democratic system, and even affects their sense of control over the chosen leaders. The effect is visible in the voter turnout which has recorded a reduction over the years in countries like the USA.

The list of such examples seems endless. The media needs to realize the effects and consequences of the evident bias in their choice and manner of reporting. There is a need to maintain a balance between positive and negative news items. News channels and publications should provide unbiased and unexaggerated information to the people with an aim to make them more aware and informed, rather than trying to increase their own readership and viewership. Only then can we hope to reduce and not aggravate the mental health issues that every fourth person may be suffering from (WHO, 2001).

References

Johnston, W. M., & Davey, G. C. (1997). The psychological impact of negative TV news bulletins: The catastrophizing of personal worries. British Journal of Psychology, 88(1), 85-91.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1997.tb02622.x

Garz, M. (2014). Good news and bad news: evidence of media bias in unemployment reports. Public Choice, 161(3-4), 499-515. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-014-0182-2

Grabe, M. E., & Kamhawi, R. (2006). Hard Wired for Negative News? Gender Differences in Processing Broadcast News. Communication Research, 33(5), 346–369. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650206291479

Tversky A., Kahneman D. (1989) Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions. In: Karpak B., Zionts S. (eds) Multiple Criteria Decision Making and Risk Analysis Using Microcomputers. NATO ASI Series (Series F: Computer and Systems Sciences), vol 56. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-74919-3_4

 Kätsyri J, Kinnunen T, Kusumoto K, Oittinen P, Ravaja N (2016) Negativity Bias in Media Multitasking: The Effects of Negative Social Media Messages on Attention to Television News Broadcasts. PLoS ONE 11(5): e0153712. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153712

Schlenger WE, Caddell JM, Ebert L, Jordan BK, Rourke KM, et al. (2002) Psychological reactions to terrorist attacks: findings from the National Study of Americans’ Reactions to September 11. JAMA 288: 581–588.  doi: 10.1001/jama.288.5.581

Lahiri, A., Jha, S. S., Acharya, R., Dey, A., & Chakraborty, A. (2021). Correlates of insomnia among the adults during COVID19 pandemic: evidence from an online survey in India. Sleep medicine, 77, 66-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.11.020

Marin M-F, Morin-Major J-K, Schramek TE, Beaupré A, Perna A, Juster R-P, et al. (2012) There Is No News Like Bad News: Women Are More Remembering and Stress Reactive after Reading Real Negative News than Men. PLoS ONE 7(10): e47189. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0047189

Anant Kumar & K. Rajasekharan Nayar (2020): COVID 19 and its mental health consequences, Journal of Mental Health. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2020.1757052

Stoneham, M., Goodman, J., & Daube, M. (2014). The portrayal of Indigenous health in selected Australian media. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 5(1), 1-13. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11937/33658

Aslam, F., Awan, T.M., Syed, J.H. et al. (2020). Sentiments and emotions evoked by news headlines of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7, 23. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0523-3

Lindberg, S. (2020, May 18). Is watching the news bad for mental health? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/is-watching-the-news-bad-for-mental-health-4802320

The World Health Report 2001: Mental Disorders affect one in four people. (2001). WHO | World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/28-09-2001-the-world-health-report-2001-mental-disorders-affect-one-in-four-people

Riehm, K. E., Holingue, C., Kalb, L. G., Bennett, D., Kapteyn, A., Jiang, Q., … & Thrul, J. (2020). Associations between media exposure and mental distress among US adults at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. American journal of preventive medicine, 59(5), 630-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2020.06.008

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This fiercely competitive world we live in constantly reinforces the need to be “perfect” – have an ideal body and a brilliant mind, get the best grades, be in a perfect relationship, have the perfect job, and even have a perfectly curated social media feed. This drive to be perfect in mind, body and career is catalysed by social media which not only glamorizes productivity but also reinforces the development of these unrealistic standards and gives us more reason to fear mistakes and not accept our flaws. 

Increasingly we are developing these irrational ideals and unrealistic expectations and internalising the contemporary myth that everything, including our own selves, should be perfect. 

However, what if this illusion of perfection was broken and we were told that our flaws and our occasional mistakes make us more likeable than individuals who often present themselves as flawless or perfect? 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE PRATFALL EFFECT

In 1966, Harvard University Psychologist, Elliot Aronson, along with his colleagues, Joanne Floyd and Ben Willerman performed an experiment which demonstrated that “the attractiveness of a superior person is enhanced if he commits a clumsy blunder.” For the experiment, the researchers recorded an actor answering a few trivia quiz questions. The participants were 48 male undergraduate students divided in four groups. Each group was instructed to listen to one of the four scenarios:

• A superior person answering 92 % of the questions correctly

• An average person answering 30% of the questions correctly

• A superior person answering 92% of the questions correctly and spilling coffee over himself (committing a small blunder or pratfall)

• An average person answering 30% of the questions correctly and spilling coffee over himself (committing a small blunder or pratfall)

The concept of “superior” and “average” was reinforced by having these contestants (actors) reveal personal information about themselves. 

After the tape was played to the sample of students, they were asked about their impressions of the contestant they had heard. The results were in line with Aronson’s hypothesis – the students found the superior committing a blunder to be more likeable. In the words of Aronson, “the pratfall made the contestant more appealing as it increases his approachability and makes him seem less austere, more human.” However, it was also inferred from the experiment that the likeability of the average person decreased upon committing the same blunder or pratfall. 

Other factors which have an influence on Pratfall Effect are the level of self-esteem of the observer, their gender and the seriousness of the mistake committed.

THE PRATFALL EFFECT

“Pratfall” is an informal English term which means “an embarrassing mistake or failure”. From the above-mentioned experiment, it can be understood that Pratfall Effect refers to the tendency for attractiveness to increase after an individual makes a small blunder or mistake when the individual was already seen as competent or attractive. In a nutshell, Pratfall Effect simply means that a person’s likability will increase if they are not seen as flawless or perfect in a domain but they are perceived as attractive in some way and/or are seen as being competent in that domain. 

An image of perfection might be intimidating to others and usually, it is not suitable for developing healthy interpersonal bonds. It increases insecurities about personal flaws and imperfections. However, no human is perfect and flaws, mistakes and imperfections make us all human. Thus a blunder or pratfall makes individuals more relatable, approachable and therefore more likeable. 

PRATFALL EFFECT IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Several examples of the Pratfall Effect can be cited from our daily lives. Starting from our interpersonal relations to the advertisements which appeal to us, from our chances of getting a job offer to the kind of movies we enjoy, the Pratfall Effect has a role to play in all these spheres. 

One embarrassing event and we feel it is the end of our romantic story. However, Pratfall Effect states that it, in fact, might be just the beginning of our story! The occasional embarrassing mistakes committed by us and our humble imperfections increase our humanness and we tend to be perceived as attractive and endearing.

Psychologist Joanne Silvester conducted an experiment and discovered those interview candidates who admitted past mistakes at job interviews were more appealing. This perhaps could be the reason why Raju Rastogi from the movie Three Idiots was offered the job interview despite him mentioning his past failures. 

The Pratfall Effect or occasionally referred to as the “Blemishing Effect” has been heavily used in the marketing and advertising industry. In a book titled The Science of Story Selling, author Gideon F. For-mukwai states reasons why this effect matters in advertising and marketing a brand. The humanising effect of the flaw makes the brand more relatable to the consumers and it reflects humility, sincerity and the grounded nature of the brand and the entrepreneur. 

Leading consumer psychologist, Adam Ferrier, conducted research through ZenithOptimedia in which he asked a large number of the sample which of the two cookies, pictured below, they preferred. The only difference between the cookies is in the shape: on has a perfect round shape with smooth edges, while the other has a rough edge.

 Interestingly, it was observed that 68% of the sample preferred the cookie with the rough edge. 

Striving for perfection is not bad, but expecting ourselves to be perfect at all times and in all spheres is not right. Humans are beautifully flawed beings. We are not meant to be perfect. We are not even close to being perfect, but whatever we are, that is enough. We don’t need to be perfect to inspire others. We should allow ourselves to make mistakes and let people get inspiration from how we tackle those mistakes. After all, the Pratfall Effect only implies that “it is more than okay to make mistakes once in a while”.

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Symptoms

National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) lists down a few symptoms of GAD on their official website. These include excessive worrying, nervousness, difficulty in concentration, troubled sleep schedules, etc. People with anxiety tend to overthink situations more than the average person and worry about future scenarios that may seem implausible to other people. They may sometimes experience anxiety attacks which aren’t the same as panic attacks, although the terms are used interchangeably. Anxiety attacks are usually caused by a particular event and have a cause and origin. During anxiety attacks, people with anxiety may be extra sensitive to stimuli such as repetitive sounds, actions, etc. Trouble going to sleep or staying asleep is another symptom of anxiety if the person is being kept awake by their thoughts. They find it tough to relax or fully immerse themselves in any activity. But anxiety isn’t simply a feeling, anxiety triggers the body’s fight or flight response which results in the manifestation of physical symptoms such as shortness of breath, muscle pain or tightening of muscles, teeth grinding, sweating, nauseousness, etc. This causes people to sometimes confuse it for a physical ailment and not consider a mental aspect to it.

Social Anxiety

Social Anxiety Disorder is a medically diagnosable condition that is one step further than introversion and shyness. It is extremely common and causes people to have trouble going on dates, talking to new people, public speaking, attending parties, etc. These issues originate from a fear of being publicly humiliated or snubbed or being judged for any of their actions. Social anxiety can be dealt with by self-soothing methods but it causes a person to be crippled when it comes to socialising. Thus naturally, people with social anxiety tend to avoid large gatherings or even any places where they might meet new people. They choose to stay home and decline invitations as soon as they come in. This behaviour may sound familiar as is stereotypically assumed for introverts. So it is not a surprise that introversion and social anxiety are used interchangeably, but that isn’t correct.

Introverts are basically people who are more concerned with their inner world than the outside world. Unlike extroverts, who get energized and feel connected to people while socialising, it is only a tedious task to introverts, who would if given the choice, choose to stay at home alone. But contrary to popular belief, being an introvert does not equate shyness or a lack of social skills. Introverts could be master people pleasers and could charm their way around a room whole wishing they were at home watching a movie instead. So while some introverts may have social anxiety and some people with social anxiety may be introverted, these two qualities do not necessarily go hand in hand.

Extroverts and Social Anxiety

On a completely opposite note, extroverts are seen as loud, funny and dynamic personalities who cannot possibly know how to stay quiet. So the idea of an extrovert having social anxiety seems entirely impossible. And even if it does seem possible, it is assumed that it would be very easy to observe.  But as definitely as they exist, it is also extra tough for them to handle both extraversion and social anxiety at the same time. While some of them may simply choose to stay home and avoid putting themselves in positions where they would have to socialize, others try to force themselves to get out there and end up making themselves miserable. The ones who stay at home, end up convincing themselves and people around them that they’re an introvert when in reality they have much more fun going outside and hanging out with people. The ones who do force themselves to go outside, live in constant fear where they question every single step they take or every sentence they speak. They might replay conversations and try to figure out if they did something wrong and overthink themselves into a frenzy of worry and nervousness over future interactions.

Thus, extroverts with social anxiety find themselves in a unique conundrum. While they need social interactions to thrive, those very interactions also cause them immense amounts of worry.

Tips to Work Through Social Anxiety

Be mindful. Anxiety makes you worry about the future or the past so it is important to keep reminding yourself that the present is all that matters.

Give yourself time. Allow yourself space to get comfortable with the idea of a situation before putting yourself in it. For example, do not immediately force yourself to go for tryouts in a huge club without some time to wrap your mind around the idea.

Start small. Take small steps towards what you want to achieve while constantly showing your inner critic that you’re doing well. For example, instead of going to a huge party full of strangers, go to a small lunch with friends and maybe 1 or 2 mutual friends that you have never talked to.

Remember that you’re not alone and chances are there may be a lot more people around you who are dealing with social anxiety that isn’t obvious to you.

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Separation Anxiety Disorder is experienced by children when they have intense anxiety concerning separation from their home or caregivers. It is natural for a young child to feel anxious when they are separated from their parents. It usually starts from a child’s first birthday and can last up to their fourth birthday. Parents can ease their child’s anxiety by being patient and by setting some limits. However, some kid’s anxiety does not go away and it becomes a sign of a larger problem that is separation anxiety disorder. It is not a normal stage of development. Children with this disorder avoid situations in which they will be parted from their caregivers. Even the thought of separation causes extreme anxiety. Situations like when their caregivers are going to work or before going to sleep at night they become anxious. They ask one of their parents to stay with them and leave them after they sleep because they get nightmares regarding separation. Adults avoid going out and staying with others for example going to a friend’s house for a night out.

When they are separated from their caregivers they develop intense fear. They think something terrible will happen to their caregivers or themselves. The fear gets intense that they feel they will get kidnapped.  To avoid this situation they complain about physical symptoms such as stomach ache, fever etc. They become panicky, miserable, homesick, socially withdrawn and sad. They also demand constant attention and sometimes become so clingy that they will not allow one of their caregiver to go out of sight. People with separation anxiety disorder are also at greater risk of subsequently developing other anxiety disorder such as panic disorder.

SYMPTOMS

The symptoms of separation anxiety disorder include:

1. Fear and worry that something will happen to their caregivers
2. Children refuse to go to school
3. Insomnia
4. Complains about headache and stomachache
5. Clinging to the caregiver
6. Nightmares about separation
7. Fear of being alone
8. Bedwetting
9. Temper tantrums

Children and adolescents should show at least three symptoms from the above mentioned symptoms. The symptoms should last for at least four weeks and cause significant distress.

CAUSES

It occurs because of the fear a child has in some ways. If we can know the actual cause we will be one step closer to help the child through their struggles. A strong genetic component was used as evidenced by analyses based on twin data. Important environmental factors such as low-income environment, new house or school can trigger symptoms. They can also develop it because of natural or manmade disasters such as losing a loved one in an attack or tsunami etc. An overprotective parent or insecure attachment can also be a problem because they manifest their own anxiety about separation on the kid. 

DIAGNOSIS

Separation Anxiety Disorder is diagnosed on the basis of the signs and symptoms shown by the person. It varies from age to age. Children in the range of 5 to 8 show more symptoms than the 9 to 12 age group. Young children report more nightmares. Adolescents are more likely to report physical symptoms. Parents and child symptoms differ from each other. Clinicians are more likely to diagnose children with the disorder when parents report their symptoms. There are no laboratory tests for this disorder but the clinicians can ask for a blood test. If no physical illness is found, the child is sent to a psychologist to diagnose and treat them.

TREATMENT

The majority of children diagnosed with the disorder are completely free of symptoms within 18 months. However, people those who need help get the proper treatment from the clinicians. Behavioural techniques such as Systematic Desensitization, Exposure Therapy and Modeling is used for treating fear and anxieties. Contingency management and self management are also useful in teaching child to react positively to their fear-provoking situations. The therapies can be given individually or in combination. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy seems to be the most promising. It helps to reshape the child’s thinking and behaviour. Other therapies include Talk Therapy and Family Counseling to help the child to fight from their fears of separation.  There are no specific medications but in severe cases, antidepressant or anti-anxiety pills can be given to the person. Parents can also help their children at home by making proper plans for them and replacing their anxiety provoking thoughts into positive thoughts and also by setting some limits. They should also allow the child to stay or go to some place alone and should give up on their insecurities regarding their children.

CONCLUSION

Most children with the disorder get better and healthy with time. They need family support and love and when this thing combines with the treatment the chances of recovery improves. There is no way of preventing it but acting and recognizing it at the right time is important. They should live at a better place and should adapt with the changes and should give away their fears and accept the challenges with a positive attitude.

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Anorexia Nervosa is an eating disorder in which a person is unable to maintain normal weight and have an intense fear of gaining weight and have distorted body image. Three basic symptoms shown by the person involves restricted eating, unrealistic fear of getting fat and disturbed self-perception of body shape. The person has abnormally low body weight. They feel that they are overweight even though they are seriously underweight. The depletion of nutrients that occur because of anorexia leads to a lot of health changes some of them can be life-threatening. Starting from the brain, they cannot think right, there are changes in their brain chemistry and they have bad and fainting memory. Their hair gets thin and brittle. Have low blood pressure and slow heart rate and can also face heart failure. They also face anaemia and other blood problems like low potassium, magnesium and sodium in the blood. Weak and swollen joints and more prone to fractures. May face kidney stones and kidney failure. Constipation and bloating, menstruation stop, bone loss and women face problems in getting pregnant and there are higher risks of miscarriage. Skin gets bruises easily and gets dry. Hair all over the body, skin gets pale and nails get brittle.

There are two types of anorexia, the “restricting” type involves that they get engage in restricting calories. The other is “Purging” type in which they lose weight by vomiting. People who have anorexia experience a core disturbance in their body image. In one study it was shown that women suffering from anorexia showed distinct arousal patterns in area of the brain involve in processing emotions. Women with the restricted form appears not to value thinness so much as they are repelled by the idea of being overweight. The lifetime prevalence in women is 0.9 percent and 0.3 in men. The majority of individuals who develop it are in their early 20’s. Men have 25 per cent lower lifetime prevalence than women.

Many people get confused between Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa which is another type of eating disorder. In Bulimia, a person engages in binge eating during which they eat an excessive amount of food during a short period. In order to avoid weight gaining, they involve in purging which causes different physical and psychological issues.

CAUSES

The exact cause of anorexia is unknown. The conditions may run in families. From a biological point of view, the researchers are interested in the role of dopamine which plays a role in the feeling of pleasure including those which are related to eating. The abnormal processing of emotions in people may be related to other genes that are related to depressive mood. There are environmental or social factors such as constantly comparing their bodies to others and never getting satisfied with one own self and hormonal changes. The messages from social media and the fashion industry that thin is beautiful. Other factors are physical or sexual abuse or being bullied.

SYMPTOMS

There are two types of symptoms Physical and Psychological.

The Psychological Symptoms are as follows:

1. Refusing to eat
2. Not eating in front of others
3. Feeling sad and anxious
4. Low self-esteem
5. Lying about eating
6. Fixation on body image
7. Denying that they are underweight
8. Using diet pills and purging
9. Lack of emotions
10. Reduce sex drive
11. Memory loss
12. Changes in sleeping patterns
13. Trouble in relationships

The Physical Symptoms are as follows:

1. Dizziness
2. Loss and thinning of hair
3. Constipation
4. Dehydration
5. Pale and dry skin
6. Feeling cold all the time
7. Tremendous weight loss
8. Loss of periods in women
9. Loss of muscle mass
10. Low blood pressure and heart rate
11. Swollen hands and legs
12. Brittle nails
13. Bad breath and tooth decay
14. Over-exercising

DIAGNOSIS

Early diagnosis and proper treatment help the person to fight this disorder. They should show the following symptoms for the treatment of Anorexia Nervosa. The physicians detect signs of anorexia they should also test for diabetes, chronic infections, malabsorption, cancer etc. and blood test and image scans. People with anorexia also have mood disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder and social phobia.

According to the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA’s) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th Edition (DSM-5), the diagnostic criteria for anorexia nervosa are as follows:

1. Restriction of energy intake relative to requirements leading to a significantly low body weight in the context of age, sex, developmental trajectory, and physical health.
2. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight.
3. Disturbance in the way in which one’s body weight or shape is experienced, undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or denial of the seriousness of the current low body weight.

TREATMENT

The primary aim of treatment involves identifying and changing the individual’s maladaptive assumptions that occur regarding their body shape and weight.

In Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, clinicians attempt to change what are selective biases people regarding eating disorder that lead them to focus on the parts of bodies they dislike. By using Exposure Therapy in which clients view their bodies in the mirror in an attempt to reduce negative emotions that they experience. They teach them mindfulness techniques to reduce negative cognitions and affect their bodies by giving them psychoeducation about the ways that their beliefs reinforce their negative body image. In the sociocultural perspective, clinicians use family components for clients. Parents take the whole charge of their eating and weight. It can also involve family therapy and nutrition counselling to help the client to regain healthy eating habits.

There is no specific medication for this disorder. They can be given medication to control anxiety, depression and OCD. SSRIs such serotonin and olanzapine can be given when their weight is 95 percent of normal of their height and age. Hospitalization may also be needed if there is severe weight loss and the client refuses to eat.

CONCLUSION

May researchers believed that it not a disorder which cannot be treated.  The person can live a normal and healthy life by not being judgmental of other people and being kind and respectful. They should meet people who can help them and should take treatment from professionals. They should have high self-esteem and should believe that they are getting better day by day.

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Relativism and Universal Human Rights

Normative cultural relativism, stemming from moral relativism, is the belief that there are no universally valid moral principles and that moral correctness varies from society to society. In principle, this theory seems ideal and befitting for all. However, the main limitation of this theory lies in the very principle that no individual/society can then be held accountable for any ethical or human rights violations they commit since they are the sole arbiters of those beliefs. One of the most extreme cases of normative cultural relativism would be the Holocaust and how it can not be considered unethical due to the sheer difference in societal principles of morality. 

Leading from this very theoretical debate arises an obstacle to curate a universal framework for human rights conduct to be followed by states. With an increasingly globalised state of world order and the involvement of states in inter-governmental forums, the need for a universal framework for the code of human rights is essential. Complex interdependence and the ability of states to intervene in the affairs of other states have made a universal guideline necessary. More importantly, the acceptance of such frameworks that meet the common ground with varied cultures is essential for states to implement them. 

Universal or Western?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is one of the most sought after frameworks of human rights that have been put into effect by the UN as a method to enable the accessibility to human rights. Although the UDHR does not base itself off of any specific culture, it is often looked at as a westernised idea of human rights. 

The thematic grounding of the UDHR is based on the individual with a focal point on individual rights. The idea of community and society relating to one’s rights is not an idea that has been explored or demonstrated in it. The neglect towards a utilitarian approach in this framework makes it unfitting for cultures that believe in a communal approach instead of an individualistic one. Analogously, Asian societies are based on the heterogenous communal approach, often built on the foundation of religion. This lays special emphasis on the importance of a family unit and the idea of societal unity. 

Western countries have often been held accountable for practicing cultural imperialism, especially after the end of colonialism, cultural dominance through indirect channels became a mode of asserting supremacy. The deviation from the Asian perspective further reinforces the practice of cultural imperialism and puts the entire framework of the UDHR up for question on the grounds of western power play and the imposition of western beliefs through international forums, masked as a way to contribute to the greater good. 

Examining the approaches to universal rights, it is safe to deduce that the need for them is imperative and needs some aspects of moral absolutism to put the same into effect. However the acceptance and inclusion of all cultures need to be viewed as an equivalent of the former reason stated, pertaining to cultural relativism, and due to the absolute presence of diversity in cultures. 

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KIM NOBLE : AN ARTIST DIVIDED

“A lot of people are very frightened of us until they meet us”

~ Kim Noble

Kim Noble is a 59-year-old mother who lives in south London with her teenage daughter Aimee, two dogs and more than 20 separate personalities. 

Dawn is stuck in 1997, searching for her daughter Sky, who she believes was taken away.

Bonny had the strength to fight for her child through the courts.

Ken is a depressed gay man of 21.

Abi has loneliness in her life. 

Ria Pratt is 12 or 13, and is thought to have been abused.

Judy is a 15-year-old anorexic and bulimic, and is often a bit cheeky, but is very good at painting.

Patricia, in her 50’s, is strict and sensible and is the narrator of an intriguing new book called “All of Me.” She is the most consistent personality of Kim.

While all these personalities appear independent, each is a part of Kim Noble, whose main personality is split into several parts, each having an amnesic barrier between them. Her other alter egos include Salome the devout Catholic, a little boy who speaks only Latin, an elective mute, a sensible Hayley, and a handful of children “frozen” in time. While many of the alters are unaware of it, some of the alters know that Kim has Dissociative Identity Disorder or D.I.D—the preferred term for Split Personality Disorder or what used to be called Multiple Personality Disorder.

From the age of 14, Kim spent twenty years in and out of psychiatric hospitals because of being diagnosed with everything from schizophrenia to depression, hysterical amnesia, anorexia and bulimia. Finally, she met Dr Valerie Sinason and Dr Rob Hale at the Tavistock and Portman Clinics and in 1995 she began therapy and was diagnosed with Dissociative Identity Disorder. 

D.I.D is a rare reaction to severe trauma in which the brain splits into multiple personalities as a defence mechanism to cope with chronic trauma.  Kim is believed to have suffered severe trauma from sexual abuse as a young child that caused her mind to split into these multiple personalities and develop D.I.D as a “creative way to cope with unbearable pain”. 

In 2004, after spending a short time with an art therapist, Kim and 12 of her alter personalities developed an interest in painting despite having no formal art training. These 12 artists have their own distinctive artistic styles, colours and themes-

Bonny’s pictures often feature robotic dancing figures or “frieze people”, Suzy repeatedly paints a kneeling mother, Anon paints at night and uses texture in paintings, Abi’s paintings are usually people from a behind view, Patricia paints the desert landscapes which according to her are a “bit boring” and Judy’s canvasses are large, conceptual pieces which are usually portraits – some with their eyes open, others shut. Ria on the other hand paints very differently. Using bold bright colours, her childlike but disturbing pieces often reveal deeply traumatic events involving child abuse.

Art has definitely had a therapeutic effect on Kim and instead of coming out as words, the expression comes out in art. These personalities, combined, have had over 60 exhibitions, nationally and internationally.

Generally, Patricia’s personality switches around four or five times a day – a switch that can last five minutes, a few hours or several days. Stress or lack of sleep can increase the number of switches, as can painting – a sign, Patricia believes, that a personality just wants to come out and paint to express themselves.

Despite the fact that she has to live with several alter personalities –– Kim Noble is fortunate enough to be living a relatively normal life. To communicate with “Patricia,” “Judy”, “Salome”, “Ken” and the others, Kim’s therapist sends emails to each of them. All of the personalities have separate email addresses and passwords, and Patricia leaves notes for them. “Patricia” says her situation isn’t such where a single personality represents a specific mood (such as “anger” or “fear”). Instead, each of her 20 personalities has a full range of emotions and living with Dissociative Identity Disorder means “sharing a household—there are different clothes, closets and toothbrushes for each personality.”

In the past few years, Kim Noble was featured in national newspapers such as The Telegraph, The Guardian, The Independent and several others. She even appeared at the Oprah Show, This Morning Show, Anderson Cooper Show and BBC Radio1 with Victoria Derbyshire.

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER

Dissociative disorders involve problems with memory, emotion, identity, perception, behaviour and sense of self. 

Dissociative Identity Disorder is caused by “overwhelming experiences, traumatic events, and/or abuse occurring in childhood.” 

The DSM-5 gives the following diagnostic criteria for Dissociative Identity Disorder: 

1. “Disruption of identity characterized by two or more distinct personality states, which may be described in some cultures as an experience of possession. The disruption of marked discontinuity in sense of self and sense of agency, accompanied by related alterations in affect, behaviour, consciousness, memory, perception, cognition, and/or sensory-motor functioning. These signs and symptoms may be observed by others or reported by the individual. 
2. Recurrent gaps in the recall of everyday events, important personal information, and/or traumatic events that are inconsistent with ordinary forgetting. 
3. The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. 
4. The disturbance is not a normal part of a broadly accepted cultural or religious practice. Note: In children, the symptoms are not better explained by imaginary playmates or other fantasy play. 
5. The symptoms are not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., blackouts or chaotic behaviour during alcohol intoxication) or another medical condition (e.g., complex partial seizures).” 

Treatment

Treatment typically involves psychotherapy through which people gain control over the symptoms and the dissociative process. Therapy aims at helping individuals integrate the different elements of identity. 

Therapy for this trauma based disorder may be difficult and intense as it requires remembering and coping with traumatic experiences of the past. Cognitive behavioural therapy and dialectical behavioural therapy are two commonly used types of therapy. Like in the case of Kim Noble, art can have a therapeutic effect on individuals with Dissociative Identity Disorder. Hypnosis has also been found to be helpful in some cases. There are no medications which specifically threat the symptoms of D.I.D, but doctors may prescribe medicines such as anti-psychotic drugs or anti-depressants which may be helpful in the treatment of those specific symptoms. 

Thus, with appropriate treatment, most of the people suffering from Dissociative Identity Disorder are successful in coping with the major symptoms of this rare mental illness and improving their ability to function and live a productive and fulfilling life. 

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Origin

The science of psychology itself is relatively new, being 100 years old at most, but the study of how colours affect our lives has been a topic of discussion since long before. Aristotle developed the first theory related to colour, believing it was sent from God through heavenly rays of light. He said that all colours known to us came from the colours white or black. He related colours to the four elements – earth, water, fire and air. Describing how fire had the colour red and yellow in it while air stood for the colour white. This was followed by Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of colours in his book Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light published in 1704. This book analyzes the basic nature and behaviour of light by using refraction through prisms and lenses, the diffraction of light by closely spaced sheets of glass, and the behaviour of color mixtures with spectral lights or pigment powders. In 1810 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published a book called Theory of Colours (German: Zur Farbenlehre) about his views on the nature of colours and how these are perceived by humans. It was published in English in 1840. The book contains detailed descriptions of phenomena such as coloured shadows, refraction, and chromatic aberration. So Goethe’s work was the first of its kind to start considering the physiological aspect of colours.

Colour is light, it’s all around us at all times. The first thing we consciously or subconsciously notice about any object is its colour so it most certainly plays an important role in how we view things. Some researchers believe this is part of our primitive instincts, the ones we needed to survive in the wild but which we have now adapted to more sophisticated uses. We are very easily swayed when choosing which brands to shop with, just by their brand colours. Even blind or colour blind people are sensitive to colour Psychology. Although, it still also works alongside our survival instincts. For example, if a housefly was to enter your house, you wouldn’t be very surprised to see a blob of black flying around, but if this same insect happened to be yellow and black in colour, you would immediately become very wary of it.

Colour Theories

Micco Groenholm talking about colour affects talks about the difference between colour Psychology and colour symbolism. While colour Psychology talks about unconscious colour preferences that show us a person’s personality, colour symbolism is the result of cultural or religious biases which have caused certain colours to be associated with certain things. Colour symbolism is ingrained in our brains and does not happen subconsciously. A few examples of colour symbolism are how the western world views green as the colour for jealousy, while in Ireland it is seen as a representative of good luck. The religion Islam uses the colour green to represent peace. A lot of times the symbolism may contradict itself for certain people in certain areas. Such as green, while being seen as the colour representing jealousy in America, due to the influence of Shakespeare who first used the term ‘green-eyed monster’, also represents wealth and social status because of the green dollars. Most Americans know both these meanings for the colour, but the meaning that they choose to believe in is based entirely on them and their personal experiences. This difficulty of differentiating between colour Psychology and colour symbolism may be the biggest discouragement to more research on these topics.

Another limitations that researchers face when studying colour Psychology are the shades and tones in colours. There are 11 basic colours recognised by everyone but colours exist on a spectrum, even a slight shift in tone or shade may result in a completely new colour. It isn’t sure how much this would affect how people feel about the particular colour but it is known that people respond differently to warm-toned colours and cool-toned colours and the same colour can exist in both warm and cool-toned forms. 

Colour Preferences

Unlike usual assumptions, no colour has only negative or only positive connotations. How you see each colour depends entirely on you and the environment that you have been surrounded with. Almost every research that has been done about the preferred colour in adults worldwide, has resulted in the same answer, blue, yet blue is also associated with negative emotions such as sadness, coldness, etc. This is why, which colour a person prefers, after taking into account the culture they were brought up in, may tell us a lot about their personality. For example, while someone may see red as the colour for passion, others may see it as the colour for aggression. What is interesting is to note that everyone all around the world does seem to agree on the fact that red represents a strong emotion. Colour preference varies, not just by region, religion and culture but also age and gender. It was found that while adults did have a colour that the majority of them preferred, children’s answers varied more. This may be due to the lack of learned colour symbolism in children or a lack of a properly cultivated personality.

Most of the research done in colours is about the colour preferences of a group or of an individual and how these reveal their personality. An important part of colour preference is usually forgotten and that is when other people associate a particular colour with a person. As is generally agreed upon, different people see different aspects of our personality and this affects how they think of us in general. People sharing the same culture tend to relate the same meanings to a colour. 

Conclusion

A very telling way of understanding personality as seen by other people is to ask them to choose which colour they associate with you. While some of these associations are unconsciously made with a colour they see the person wearing a lot or talking about a lot, more often than not, they come from the subconscious. Since Colour Psychology is backed by such little research, it has a lot of disbelievers and appropriately so. Most of what is known about Colour Psychology is not usually backed by facts but it is always a topic of interest and does have some much more believable aspects but even then the infinite possibilities of Colour Psychology have only been scratched on the surface by the research conducted on it. 

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Hearing Kitty’s cries for help, a neighbor, Robert Mozer, yelled out of his window, “Leave that girl alone!”, causing the attacker to flee. Kitty Genovese, gravely injured, staggered to her apartment out of sight of any witness. Ten minutes later, the assailant returned, only to rape, murder and rob her. Kitty’s mutilated body was found by a neighbor, Sophia Farrar, who called the police. The entire macabre lasted for 30 minutes and Kitty Genovese lost her life en route to the hospital.

This incident left a mark in history forever. Investigators revealed that the entire abhorrent spectacle was witnessed by 37 onlookers and none of them came out to help. They saw the drama unfold before their eyes from the precincts of their home. Some stared from the window, some phoned each other while others pulled out a chair to sit and enjoy the scene.

The murder of Kitty Genovese sparked widespread interest among psychologists to investigate why people do not help in case of an emergency. They came with a concept which we term as Bystander Effect.

What is Bystander Effect?

According to psychologists, bystander effect is the inhibiting influence of the presence of others on a person’s willingness to help someone in need. The greater the number of bystanders, the less likely are the chances that the person in distress will get help.

John Darley and Bibb Latane, eminent social psychologists conducted classic studies to understand this phenomenon. In one of their experiments, subjects were seated in three different treatment conditions:

alone in a room, with two other participants, or with two confederates who pretended to be normal participants. The participants were asked to a fill out a questionnaire. As they worked, smoke began to fill the room.

The researchers found that when participants were alone, 75% reported the smoke to the experimenters. In a room with two other people, just 38% of participants reported the smoke. In the final group, the two confederates in the experiment noted the smoke and then ignored it, which resulted in only 10% of the participants reporting the smoke.

This study illustrated that, as the number of participants increased, the reporting of smoke in the room decreased. Thus contrary to the popular belief, the presence of more people can turn out to be detrimental in case of an emergency situation.

What are the causes of Bystander Effect?

Researchers have pin-pointed a number of factors behind this phenomenon such as:

1. Diffusion of Responsibility

Diffusion of responsibility is a psychological phenomenon in which people are less likely to take action when in the presence of a large group of people. This is primarily because, in the presence of a large group, people experience a sense of de-individuation, the responsibility to help gets diffused or distributed and as a result no one singularly feels pressurised or guilty for the same.

According to Latane and Darley, when a person comes across a stressful situation, he/she makes a series of decisions to decipher whether help is required:

• The first step involves actually noticing a problem.
• Second, the individual must decide if what they are witnessing is actually an emergency.
• Third, perhaps the most critical decision in this process: Deciding to take personal responsibility to act.
• The individual decides what has to be done.
• Finally, the bystander actually takes action.

It is after going through this decision-making process that a person makes a decision whether help is required in the situation.

2. Norm Of The Social Setting

The situations of emergency are often chaotic and stressful and often to make a decision to intervene, people look at others to decipher the acceptable norms of conduct. If others do not help people, think that perhaps help is not needed.

3. Ambiguous Nature Of The Situation

Many times bystanders hesitate to intervene because the situation is unclear. They shy away from making a decision to help if the need and cause of the situation are unclear.

For instance, in the case of Kitty Genovese, many witnesses reported that they believed that they were witnessing a “lover’s quarrel,” and did not realize that the young woman was being murdered.

4. Feelings of inadequacy in terms of required strength and traits to be able to help and thinking that others are better equipped to aid.

5. Fearing a cumbersome interrogation by the police as an eyewitness.

Incidences Of Bystander Effect In India

Perhaps the very first incidence of bystander effect in our country took place in the courtroom of Hastinapur where Draupadi was insulted and warriors meekly passed the onus of responsibility from one to another.

In one recent case, 35-year-old Narender Kumar recalls the harrowing experience when he was lying on road bleeding for 12 hours and none of the passers-by heeded to his calls for help. Worse, some of them stopped only to rob him of his money and phone.

What we see in India and in other parts of the world as well as the case of sheer public apathy. Incidents like these are no longer a novelty. Moreover, these silent perpetrators further aggravate a victim’s pain by video-recording the scene for their fruitless WhatsApp and Instagram feeds.

Dealing with Bystander Apathy

Psychologists believe that bystander paralysis can be best reduced by awareness among the masses. Simply knowing the causes that hold a person back from intervening in an emergency situation can make a person take conscious decisions to overcome it.

Secondly, a major factor which hinders public intervention is the fear of getting entangled with police and court formalities for case interrogation. SaveLife Foundation, a non-profit committed to improving road safety and emergency medical care across India, explains that 74% of bystanders during road accidents do not help the victim.

But as many people might be unaware, The Good Samaritan Law enacted by the Supreme court of India in March 2016 allows a person to come forward voluntarily to administer immediate assistance or emergency care to a person injured in an accident, or crash, or emergency medical condition. The law protects Good Samaritans from harassment on the actions being taken by them to save the life of the road accident victims. Thus the need of the hour is to spread awareness among the masses.

Dr. Harish Shetty, a psychiatrist, says that, “We are taught from a very young age not to meddle in others’ affairs. It’s easy to sit in your drawing room and have conversations on standing up for what is right. But when it comes to helping someone who is not a part of your family or friends’ circle, people

tend not to intervene. Taking a stand and rocking the boat is not a part of our psyche.”

Thus, to address the situation in a holistic sense, a mass awareness programme is required. Perhaps, our principle of ‘Vasudheva Kutumbakam’ meaning ‘World is a family’ can be taught in schools so that our upcoming generation is morally educated to extend a hand of help in case of emergency. A sense of empathy must be ingrained at a larger scale so that people do not apathetically witness a situation but rather take a conscious decision to help and those coming out to help must be publicly lauded.

Lastly, one must learn to take the lead. If others do not act, one must step forward and actively ask others to assist the person in need.

So let’s all come together as the baton bearers of change and take the lead to raise an ode to humanity!

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